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PubMed2003

Kinematic analysis of the hind limb during swimming and walking in healthy dogs and dogs with surgically corrected cranial cruciate ligament rupture.

OBJECTIVE: To determine hip, stifle, and tarsal joint ranges of motion (ROM) and angular velocities during swimming and walking in healthy dogs and dogs with surgically corrected cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture. DESIGN: Prospective clinical study. ANIMALS: 13 healthy dogs and 7 dogs with CCL rupture. PROCEDURE: Dogs with CCL rupture were enrolled in a postoperative aquatic rehabilitation program and evaluated 21 to 35 days after surgery. Dogs were filmed while swimming in a pool and while walking at a fast (1.3 m/s) or slow (0.9 m/s) pace on a treadmill. Maximal angles of extension and flexion, ROM, and angular velocities were calculated. RESULTS: In healthy dogs, swimming resulted in a significantly greater ROM in the hip joint than did walking, but in dogs with CCL rupture, ROM of the hip joint did not vary with swimming versus walking. For dogs in both groups, swimming resulted in significantly greater ROM of the stifle and tarsal joints than did walking, primarily because of greater joint flexion. Stifle joint ROM was significantly lower in dogs with CCL rupture than in healthy dogs, regardless of whether dogs were swimming or walking. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that following surgical management of a ruptured CCL in dogs, swimming resulted in greater ROM of the stifle and tarsal joints than did walking. This suggests that if ROM is a factor in the rate or extent of return to function in these dogs, then aquatic rehabilitation would likely result in a better overall outcome than walking alone.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Capsaicin increases endurance capacity and spares tissue glycogen through lipolytic function in swimming rats.

The influences of various doses of capsaicin on endurance capacity remain to be clarified. The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not capsaicin delays stored tissue glycogen depletion. Rats were orally given either a vehicle or a dose of capsaicin, 6, 10, or 15 mg/kg of body weight, 2 h before exercise. The rats in each group were divided into three subgroups for resting and swimming exercise (30 min, exhaustion). Swimming exercises were performed with a weight corresponding to 3% body weight attached to the tail, and the endurance capacity was evaluated by the swimming time until exhaustion. The 15 mg/kg dose of capsaicin significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced the endurance performance time and plasma concentration of epinephrine, norepinephrine, free fatty acid and glucose rose to significantly higher levels within 30 min; swimming exercise compared to rest (p < 0.05). At the 15 mg/kg capsaicin dosage. the plasma insulin level decreased to significantly lower levels in group subjected to 30-min swimming as compared to the resting group (p < 0.05), while plasma glucagon rose to a significantly higher level (p < 0.05). Liver and gastrocnemius muscle glycogen in the group subjected to 30-min swimming was maintained at significantly higher concentrations in the rats fed 15 mg/kg of capsaicin as compared to the vehicle counterparts (p < 0.05). These results suggest that the improvement in swimming endurance with the high capsaicin dosage is caused by an increase in fatty acid utilization as the energy source, resulting in the sparing of glycogen.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

Influence of Anguillicola crassus (Nematoda) and Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ciliophora) on swimming activity of European eel Anguilla anguilla.

We investigated the swimming activity of 70 European eels Anguilla anguilla in relation to natural infection with 2 parasite species: the eel-specific swimbladder nematode Anguillicola crassus and the non-specific skin and gill protozoan Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. We measured how long individual eels exposed to a water current in a swimming channel with a steady-stream profile could withstand the water current. The parasites affected the swimming behaviour of eels in different ways. The maximum period of time the fish were able to swim against the current was not correlated with infection by A. crassus. In contrast, infection with I. multifiliis reduced the swimming time. The protozoan has a higher pathogenicity than the swimbladder nematode, at least in closed systems, where I. multifiliis is able to spread within a few days. Reduction in swimming capacity after infection with the ciliate averaged 47 % compared to capacity prior to infection. Thus, our results do not support the previously suggested strong negative relation between swimming activity of eels and intensity of A. crassus infection, at least in the short-term. However, there are indications in the literature that the pathological effects of A. crassus on the eel swimmbladder may involve a higher energy demand, possibly manifested in a prolonged spawning migration. As a result, eels heavily infected with this parasite may arrive too late at the spawning site to participate in mating. This could ensure a selection of 'good genes'.

Air Sacs↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis linked to an indoor swimming pool.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent and source of a community outbreak of cryptosporidiosis. DESIGN: Questionnaire-based survey and matched case-control study. SETTING: Sutherland area in southern Sydney, September 1994 to January 1995. PARTICIPANTS: 70 patients reported by pathology laboratories to have stool specimens positive for cryptosporidia, of whom 43 were surveyed; 35 were compared with age- and neighbourhood-matched controls. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Demographic characteristics and potential risk factors in the two weeks before onset of illness. RESULTS: Laboratories reported 70 cases of cryptosporidiosis between September 1994 and January 1995. We found no association between illness and foods consumed or contact with people with diarrhoea or sick animals in the two weeks before onset. Seventeen of the case group (49%) reported swimming in a particular indoor swimming pool, compared with only seven controls (20%) (odds ratio, 3.7; P = 0.015). Cryptosporidial oocysts were detected in water from the swimming pool in January 1995. CONCLUSIONS: The outbreak of cryptosporidiosis was probably associated with ingestion of water from the indoor swimming pool, presumably contaminated by infected bathers. RECOMMENDATIONS: As it is difficult to eradicate cryptosporidia from swimming pools by either disinfection or filtration, we recommend that: People with recent diarrhoea should avoid public swimming pools; and Non-toilet-trained and faecally incontinent swimmers should be provided with alternative swimming facilities with separate water and filtration systems. To enable appropriate public health responses: Doctors and pathology laboratories should consider cryptosporidiosis in patients with diarrhoea lasting longer than three days; and Laboratory reporting of cryptosporidia to local health departments should be mandatory in all States and Territories.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Sensory activation and role of inhibitory reticulospinal neurons that stop swimming in hatchling frog tadpoles.

Activity in neuronal networks underlying locomotion and other rhythmic actions can start and stop in response to specific sensory stimuli. In vertebrate locomotion, some reticulospinal neurons such as Mauthner neurons can initiate activity, but the neurons controlling stopping are not defined. We have studied swimming in tadpoles of the frog, Xenopus, which is started by touching the skin and stops when the head contacts a solid surface. Using an immobilized tadpole preparation, the same stimuli control fictive swimming. When head contact is imitated by pressure to the head skin sensory neurons in the trigeminal ganglion are active, spinal neurons receive GABAergic inhibition, and swimming stops. Here we record intracellularly from neurons in the hindbrain that are excited by pressure or electrical stimulation to the head skin. By intracellular filling with neurobiotin, we identify these anatomically as mid-hindbrain reticulospinal neurons (MHRs). These have contralateral descending projections to the spinal cord and GABA-like immunoreactivity. They are rhythmically inhibited during fictive swimming. Individual MHRs reliably stopped ongoing swimming when brief firing was induced by intracellular current injection. The ability of individual MHRs to stop swimming was blocked by the GABA(A) antagonist bicuculline. Our evidence indicates that MHRs receive direct excitation from trigeminal sensory neurons and in turn release GABA to directly inhibit spinal neurons and turn off the swimming central pattern generator.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2002

Effects of prolonged and reduced warm-ups on diurnal variation in body temperature and swim performance.

Previous studies have suggested a diurnal variation in the performance of physical tasks. The theoretical basis for the effect of time-of-day on performance centers on the circadian rhythms of many physiological variables and especially the body temperature curve. This investigation had two purposes: (a) to determine if increasing the volume of the warm-up could eliminate diurnal variation in body temperature and swim performance, and (b) to determine if reduction of the warm-up volume in the late afternoon would affect body temperature and swim performance. Participants for this investigation included 6 male and 4 female competitive swimmers (mean age = 15 +/- 1 years). Before the swim performance trials in the morning, participants warmed up with either standard volume (2,011.68 m) or 200% of that volume. Before the afternoon swim performance trials, warm-up volumes were either 33% or 100% of the standard warm-up volume. Before entering the water and immediately after the warm-up, temperature was taken from the ear. After the swim performance, participants were asked to rate their perceived exertion on the basis of Borg's CR-10 rating scale. The order of test administration for time of day and warm-up condition was balanced and with tests carried out over 4 days. Each swimmer completed 1 test condition (warm-up) per day. Results indicated that increased morning warm-up time eliminated diurnal variation in body temperature; however, evening superiority in swimming performance was not eliminated. The results also indicated that reducing the volume of the afternoon warm-up to 33% of the standard warm-up had no effect on body temperature or swim performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The glycogen and lactate content of the white and red muscles in fishes with differing natural mobilities during experimental swimming].

Glycogen content of muscles has been investigated in moderately motile fishes during burst and cruising swimming, as well as in fast swimming fishes during burst swimming. It was shown that the intensity of glycogenolysis in muscles depends on the swimming regime and natural adaptation of fishes to physical loading. During burst swimming, significant decrease in glycogen content was found in both white (up to 70%) and red muscles (up to 50%) of fishes with moderate natural motility, in contrast to fast swimming fishes in which glycogen content decreases only in white muscles (by 30%). Cruising swimming in moderately motile fishes results in practically equal decrease of the glycogen content in both types of muscles (by 80-85%). The mentioned specificity of metabolism in fishes with moderate motility, as well as peculiarities of morphological organization of their skeletal muscles (the mass of red muscles amounts up to 5%), suggest that the main locomotor organ in these species is presented by white muscles.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

The effect of clinorotation on vestibular compensation in upside-down swimming catfish.

Upside-down swimming catfish Synodontis nigriventris can keep upside-down swimming posture stably under pseudo-microgravity generated by clinostat. When the vestibular organ is unilaterally ablated, the operated S. nigriventris shows disturbed swimming postures under the clinorotation condition. However, about 1 month after the operation, unilateral vestibular organ-ablated S. nigriventris shows stable upside-down swimming posture under the condition (vestibular compensation). In contrast, a closely related upside-up swimming catfish Synodontis multipunctatus belonging to same Synodontis family can not keep stable swimming postures under the clinorotation conditions. In this study, we examined the effect of continuous clinorotation on vestibular compensation in intact and unilateral vestibular organ-ablated Synodontis nigriventris and Synodontis multipunctatus. After the exposure to continuous clinorotation, the postures of the catfish were observed under microgravity provided by parabolic flights of an aircraft. Unilateral vestibular organ-ablated S. nigriventris which had been exposed to continuous clinorotation showed stable swimming postures and did not show dorsal light reaction (DLR) under microgravity. This postural control pattern of the operated catfish was similar to that of intact catfish. Intact and unilateral vestibular organ-ablated S. multipunctatus showed DLR during microgravity. Our results confirmed that S. nigriventris has a novel balance sensation which is not affected by microgravity. DLR seems not to play an important role in postural control. It remains unclear that the continuous clinorotation effects on vestibular compensation because we could not keep used unilateral vestibular organ-ablated fish alive under continuous clinorotation for uninterrupted 25 days. This study suggests that space flight experiments are required to explore whether gravity information is essential for vestibular compensation.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Synergistic effect of imipramine and amantadine in the forced swimming test in rats. Behavioral and pharmacokinetic studies.

Our previous studies demonstrated that joint administration of a tricyclic antidepressant drug, imipramine (IMI) with the uncompetitive antagonist of NMDA receptor, amantadine (AMA), produced stronger "antidepressant" effect in the forced swimming test (Porsolt's test) than the treatment with either of drugs given alone. Since it has been suggested that, in addition to their other functions, dopamine and alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors may play a role in behavioral response in the forced swimming test, in the present study we examined the effect of sulpiride (dopamine D(2/3) receptor antagonist) and prazosin (alpha(1)-adrenergic receptor antagonist) on the effect of AMA given alone or in combination with IMI in the forced swimming test in rats. We also measured the level of IMI and its metabolite, desipramine, in the rat plasma and brain, 1 h after the forced swimming test. Joint treatment with IMI (5 or 10 mg/kg) and AMA (20 mg/kg) produced stronger antidepressant-like effect than either of agents given alone. Sulpiride (10 mg/kg) or prazosin (1 mg/kg) (ineffective in the forced swimming test) inhibited an antidepressant-like effect induced by co-administration of IMI and AMA. The active behaviors in that test did not reflect an increase in general activity, since combined administration of IMI and AMA failed to enhance the locomotor activity of rats, measured in the open field test. Also sulpiride and prazosin did not decrease the exploratory activity induced by co-administration of IMI and AMA. The above result suggests that the dopamine D(2/3) and alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors may contribute to the mechanism of synergistic action of IMI and AMA in the forced swimming test in rats. The pharmacokinetic interaction can be excluded, since AMA did not change significantly the antidepressant level in the rat plasma and brain, measured 1 h after exposure to the forced swimming test.

Amantadine↗
PubMed2004

Pollution status of swimming pools in south-south zone of south-eastern Nigeria using microbiological and physicochemical indices.

Microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of swimming pools in South Eastern states of Nigeria (Akwa Ibom and Cross River) were investigated. The bacterial isolates included Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli. Others were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris and Staphylococcus epidermidis, while fungal isolates were Penicillium sp, Rhizopus sp, Aspergillus versicolor Fusarium sp, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Mucor sp, Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and Absidia sp. The total viable count of microorganims in Ibeno (B) and Uyo (E) swimming pools were 6 x 10(6) cfu/ml and for Calabar (H) swimming pool, 3.3 x 10(7) cfu/ml. The total coliform counts were 10(6) cfu/100 ml for Calabar (G) swimming pools and 2 x 10(7) cfu/100 ml for Calabar (H) swimming pools while the fungal count ranged from 5 x 10(6) cfu/ml to 3 x 10(7) cfu/ml. Physical and chemical parameters known to be hazardous to health were also identified. The presence of high levels of coliform and fecal coliform bacteria (E. coli) revelaed that the swimming pools have not met the World Health Organization (WHO) standard for recreational waters. The swimming pools constitute a serious public health hazard.

Bacillus cereus↗
PubMed2005

[Effects of manual acupuncture and electroacupuncture on mitochondria of skeletal muscle cells in rats of acute swimming exercise].

OBJECTIVE: To observe effects of acupuncture and electroacupuncture on antioxidant enzyme and Ca2+(-) ATPase activities and Ca2+ content in mitochondria of skeletal muscle cells in rats of acute swimming exercise and explore the mechanism of acupuncture in increasing sport ability. METHODS: Forty male SD rats were randomly divided into 4 groups. The rats in the acupuncture group and the electroacupuncture group were treated respectively with acupuncture and electroacupuncture before acute swimming exercise. After the swimming exercise, the rats were killed and the skeletal muscle was taken, and then the indexes were determined. RESULTS: After acute swimming exercise, the GSH-Px and Ca(2+)-ATPase activities in the mitochondria of the skeletal muscle decreased significantly (P < 0.05) and Ca2+ content increased (P < 0.01) in the swimming group as compared with the control group; in the acupuncture group, SOD activity increased significantly (P < 0.05), GSH-Px and Ca(2+)-ATPase activities increased as compared with the swimming group (P < 0.05); Ca2+ contents in the swimming group and the electroacupuncture group significantly increased as compared with the control group (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Acupuncture can protect cells from injury of acute sports and maintain the functions of mitochondria so as to delay fatigue, prolong working time of muscles and prevent muscles from damage.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Effects of swimming training and free mobilization on bone mineral densities of rats with the immobilization-induced osteopenia.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the possible effects of regular swimming exercise on bone mineral density (BMD) compared with free activity after cast immobilization of rats. METHODS: We carried out the study from April 2005 to June 2005 at the Department of Sports Medicine, Medical School of Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey. The study included a total of 24 female Wistar rats. The rats were randomized to control (n = 6), swimming training (ST) n = 9, and free mobilization (FM) n = 9 groups. We measured Bone mineral densities of femur and vertebra of all rats with a total body scanner using software specifically designed for small animals, before study started and at weeks 3 and 7. Timepoints corresponded to basal, after cast removal (ACIM), and after 3 weeks of free mobilization (AFM) or swimming training (AST). We immobilized the right hindlimb of each ST and FM animal with a cast while the left hindlimbs were kept free. After 3 weeks, the casts were removed. Then we allowed the rats to move freely in their cage for one week, after which the animals in ST group started to swim for 5 days a week for 3 weeks for 30 minutes per day. The group FM rats moved freely in the cage. RESULTS: Bone mineral density of the femur and vertebra after cast immobilization was significantly decreased compared with both their basal and age-matched control group. After mobilization, significant increases occurred in both groups according to ACIM. Similar but milder changes were observed in free limbs femur BMD of rats. Interestingly, vertebra BMD of swimming group was also higher than its age-matched control group (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Our study showed that swimming exercise had a significant rehabilitative effect on BMD loss associated with immobilization. Further studies are needed to investigate the effects of swimming on other bone properties.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

[Role of cardiac sympathetic nervous activity in exercise--changes in catecholamine level on forced swimming rat].

UNLABELLED: Endurance exercise demands full adaptive mechanisms in various organs. Sympathetic nervous system is said to play an important role on supporting the cardiac function through norepinephrine (NE) release. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of cardiac sympathetic nervous system in exercise by measuring the activity of cardiac tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine (CA) synthesis and concentration of NE and 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylethylene glycol (DHPG), major metabolite of CA. METHODS: 14 week old Wistar rats were forced to swim in 37 degrees C water bath for 90, 150, 240, 330 minutes, respectively. Some of them couldn't swim until the fixed time (group D). After swimming, they were promptly decapitated ++ and then concentration of plasma, cardiac and adrenal CA, activity of cardiac TH and concentration of cardiac DHPG were measured. Myocardial contractility was also measured using removed papillary muscle. RESULTS: (1) Plasma CA concentration didn't change between control and each swimming group, but elevated in group D. (2) Cardiac CA concentration decreased as swimming was prolonged and markedly reduced in group D. (3) Adrenal CA concentration in swimming group tended to elevate and decreased in group D. (4) There were no differences in activity of cardiac TH between swimming group and control. (5) Concentration of cardiac DHPG were decreased in group D compared with control. (6) There were no differences in myocardial contractility between control and group D. These results suggest; prolonged exercise seemed to be supported by cardiac sympathetic NE release and was no longer continued when the cardiac sympathetic support was reduced.

Adrenal Glands↗
PubMed1990

[Microbiological and chemical analyses of indoor swimming pools and virucidal effect of chlorine in these waters].

Virological and bacteriological examinations and chemical analysis were made of 24 water samples from 6 public indoor swimming pools in Aichi Prefecture. In 3 of these swimming pools, sodium hypochlorite was used as a disinfectant and in the remainder trichloroisocyanurates. All samples were negative for adenovirus per 20 liters. Coliform group was detected in one sample with 26.7 mg/l cyanuric acid. Total plate counts ranged from 0 to 1 per ml in the swimming pools treated with sodium hypochlorite and 0 to 51 in those with trichloroisocyanurates. Turbidity, pH and potassium permanganate concentrations in the samples were within allowable limits. Seven of 24 samples did not meet the recommended value of 0.4 mg/l for free chlorine residuals. Ammonium nitrogen was detected in one pool water with trichloroisocyanurates. In 11 of 12 water samples of swimming pools using sodium hypochlorite, poliovirus 1 (2 x 10(4) PFU/0.2 ml) was inactivated within 1 min under the condition of 1.0 mg/l free available chlorine and 25 degrees C. In 11 of 12 water samples of 3 swimming pools using trichloroisocyanurates, poliovirus type 1 survived after 2 min contact while in 5 samples poliovirus type 1 survived after 5 min contact. This shows that the risk of viral infection is greater in swimming pool water treated with chlorinated isocyanurics than that with sodium hypochlorite. The operator of the swimming pool should pay special attention to the control of water quality and free residual chlorine value.

Adenoviridae↗
PubMed1989

Repeated swim stress alters brain benzodiazepine receptors measured in vivo.

The effects of repeated swim stress on brain benzodiazepine receptors were examined in the mouse using both an in vivo and in vitro binding method. Specific in vivo binding of [3H]Ro15-1788 to benzodiazepine receptors was decreased in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, midbrain and striatum after repeated swim stress (7 consecutive days of daily swim stress) when compared to nonstressed mice. In vivo benzodiazepine receptor binding was unaltered after repeated swim stress in the cerebellum and pons medulla. The stress-induced reduction in in vivo benzodiazepine receptor binding did not appear to be due to altered cerebral blood flow or to an alteration in benzodiazepine metabolism or biodistribution because there was no difference in [14C]iodoantipyrine distribution or whole brain concentrations of clonazepam after repeated swim stress. Saturation binding experiments revealed a change in both apparent maximal binding capacity and affinity after repeated swim stress. Moreover, a reduction in clonazepam's anticonvulsant potency was also observed after repeated swim stress [an increase in the ED50 dose for protection against pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures], although there was no difference in pentylenetetrazol-induced seizure threshold between the two groups. In contrast to the results obtained in vivo, no change in benzodiazepine receptor binding kinetics was observed using the in vitro binding method. These data suggest that environmental stress can alter the binding parameters of the benzodiazepine receptor and that the in vivo and in vitro binding methods can yield substantially different results.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Effect of a triathlon wet suit on drag during swimming.

The effect of a triathlon wet suit on drag was studied in 12 subjects (eight male, four female) swimming at different velocities (1.10, 1.25 and 1.50 m.s-1). The active drag force was directly measured during front crawl swimming using a system of underwater push off pads instrumented with a force transducer (M.A.D. system: 6). Measurements were made when swimming over the system with and without a wet suit. A 14% reduction in drag (from 48.7 to 41.8 Newtons) is found at a swimming velocity of 1.25 m.s-1, which is a typical swimming speed for triathlon distances. At 1.50 m.s-1 a reduction in drag of 12% was observed, which suggests that the wearing of such a suit might be beneficial in conventional swimming events. The reduction in drag can explain the higher swimming velocities observed in triathletes using a wet suit. The effect of the reduction is probably largely due to an increased buoyancy inducing less frontal resistance. However, since the effect of the suit on the lighter female swimmers was not different from the effect on the heavier male swimmers, a reduction in friction drag and drag coefficient may also be significant.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Swimming unprotected with long-shafted middle ear ventilation tubes.

Patients, parents, and physicians are all concerned about the risks of swimming unprotected with middle ear ventilation tubes. The risks have not previously been carefully quantified or correlated with the degree of swimming activity. In this study, 53 children with tympanometrically proven patent long-shafted tubes were allowed to swim unprotected. They suffered six middle ear infections that were clearly caused by swimming. Five of these infections occurred in divers. The rate of infections for divers was approximately one per 100 days of swimming activity. The rate for non-divers was approximately one per 600 days. Unprotected swimming was well accepted by almost all parents and patients. The need for earplugs for all children who swim with long-shafted ventilation tubes is questioned.

Child↗
PubMed1983

Some metabolic and biochemical alterations during the development of stress ulcers in rats forced to swim.

Swimming of the rats in the water below body temperature (23 degrees C) for a period of 5 hours resulted in a number of acute haemorrhagic lesions, principally erosions, in the glandular part of the stomach. The objective of this study was to establish the possible roles of some hormonal, biochemical and metabolic factors in the pathogenesis of stress ulcer produced in rats forced to swim. It was found that (i) prior ligation of the pylorus caused a considerable decrease of both the incidence and the severity of the ulcers resulting from the swim-stress, (ii) a significant decrease of the gastric secretion and rectal temperature resulted during the swim-stress condition, (iii) metabolic acidosis developed during the forced swimming period, (iv) considerable increases of the plasma corticosterone and blood glucose concentration also developed, (v) the gastric mucosal level of cAMP also increased, and (vi) a prior period of starvation increased the incidence and severity of the acute ulcers resulting from the swim-stress. It was concluded that various humoral, biochemical and metabolic factors play important roles in the development of stress ulceration in rats forced to swim.

Animals↗