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PubMed1983

Industrial shifts, female employment, and occupational differentiation: a dynamic model for American cities, 1960-1970.

Sex-linked occupational differentiation has been seen as influenced by both the industrial structure of the economy and the sex composition of the labor force. Here, with a sample of 70 SMSAs, it was found (a) that the odds of men relative to women of joining professional and managerial occupations increased between 1960 and 1970, and (b) that this increase was dependent on the growth of tertiary industries and the greater number of women joining the cash economy. The observed effect of industrial shifts on sex-occupational differentiation, however, is argued to be a spurious consequence of the gender-composition of the work force. Specifically, the development of tertiary industries generates greater demand for female labor. Intensive recruitment of women to the labor force in turn increases occupational differentiation because females, in sex-typed labor markets, are likely to be channeled in disproportionate numbers away from upper-status occupations. The findings demonstrate that traditional modernization theory is unable to account for this. However, the results lend support to expectations derived from a labor market sex-segmentation approach.

Career Choice↗
PubMed1997

Indicators of socioeconomic status for adolescents: the WHO Health Behaviour in School-aged Children Survey.

Many indicators of socioeconomic status used for adults are inappropriate for use in research on adolescents. In a school-based survey of 4079 Scottish schoolchildren using a self-completion questionnaire, over 20% of 11-15 year olds were unable to provide a substantive response on father's occupation. In contrast, indicators derived to construct a family affluence scale, which included car ownership, telephone ownership and the child having their own unshared bedroom, resulted in a 98% response rate; and 92% of children responded to a question on their weekly spending money. The intercorrelations between the conventional indicator of father's occupation and each family affluence and spending money were examined, and their associations with a range of health indicators and health behaviour measures compared. Father's occupational status and family affluence were moderately correlated and showed broadly similar patterns of association with the selected health measures although there were also some distinct differences. Child's spending money was only weakly correlated with father's occupation and showed rather different patterns of association with health measures. A case is made for the use of multiple indicators of socioeconomic status in adolescent health surveys, and it is argued that that the family affluence scale provides a useful and easily applied additional indicator to father's occupation or an alternative measure of socioeconomic background where occupational data are unavailable.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Health status of people with multiple sclerosis: a community mail survey.

We assessed the self-perceived health status of people with multiple sclerosis (MS) living in the Province of Milan, and the consequences of the disease on family, social and occupational status, using a cross-sectional mail survey. We identified 1350 adults with MS living in the Province of Milan. To a random sample of 400 of these, we sent out the multiple sclerosis quality-of-life-54 questionnaire (MSQOL-54), the proxy version of the short form-36 (SF-36), and a sociodemographic and clinical questionnaire. We received 261 replies (65%). Demographic and clinical data of responders and non-responders were similar except for frequency of hospitalisation over the last year, which was higher in responders. Compared to Italian norms, the MS patients had lower scores in all SF-36 domains; the differences were greatest for physical function, physical role limitations, vitality, and general health perceptions. Unemployment was 103 (41%) overall, 45% in women, and 54% in the less educated. A proxy informant was available for 245 (96%) responders. Concordance between patient and proxy reports on the SF-36 was moderate to excellent. MS had a pervasive impact on patients' lives, with substantial negative consequences for family and working life, that generally make themselves felt in the most active and productive period of people's live.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) of Vietnamese (Hanoi) schoolchildren aged 7-11 years related to parents' occupation and education.

In the spring of 1992 schoolchildren (679 boys and 661 girls) aged 6-12 years in a school in central Hanoi, Vietnam were enrolled for a medical examination including measurements of height and weight. Most of them were measured a second time almost exactly 1 year after the first measurement. Thus, values for height, weight, and body mass index (BMI), and their yearly increments were obtained for the ages 7-11 years. When these heights and weights were compared with those for children from Bangkok, Tokyo and Sweden, the Hanoi values were very close to the Bangkok ones. There were overall no significant differences in height, weight, and BMI between children whose parents were of different occupational and educational groups, except for girls whose mothers were workers/farmers, who were shorter (P <0.05), lighter (P <0.01), and had a lower BMI (P <0.05) than girls whose mothers were from upper occupational status (government staff). The overall incidence of low birthweight (<2500 g) was 11 per cent, but this was not associated with either parents' occupation or education. At the time of measurements 31.6% of the children were rated by the doctors as being in 'general bad condition'; there was a higher proportion of girls than boys (P <0.01) and a higher proportion of girls whose mothers were workers/farmers (P <0.001).

Body Height↗
PubMed2004

Socio-economic differentials in mental disorders and suicide attempts in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Responses to mental disorders usually focus on treatment; socio-economic conditions are less likely to be considered. AIMS: To examine social determinants of mental disorders and attempted suicide in Australia. METHOD: Data from the 1997 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (n=10 641) were used to estimate associations between socio-economic status, mental disorders and attempted suicide. Logistic regression was used to adjust for age, urban/rural residence and country of birth. Socio-economic status differentials in suicide attempts were also adjusted for mental disorders. RESULTS: Significant increasing gradients from high to low levels of education and occupational status (employed) were evident for affective disorders and anxiety disorders in both men and women and for substance use disorders in men. Similar gradients were found for suicide attempts, which decreased after adjusting for mental disorders, but remained significant in the working-age employed. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest social causation of mental disorders and suicide attempts, and the need for social and economic responses beyond provision of mental health services.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Proposition of an aging indicator from general health examination in France.

We present an indicator of aging based on eight quantitative variables, measured during the periodical health examination offered by French social security to the general population in France. The used sample derived from the population examined each year. We selected a reference group of 24,510 adults older than 25 years (non-smokers, drinking less than 44 g alcohol per day, with body mass index less than 35, and not using medication). A multiple regression analysis by gender was used to select significant variables to predict age from all quantitative variables measured during the health examination. The resulting biological age could be calculated from the measured variables and the aging indicator was defined as the difference between the calculated age and the chronological age. By definition, this indicator is independent of age in the reference population and gives an indication of the difference between an individual's status in the process of aging and the mean status of people of the same chronological age. Associations between this indicator and life style habits such as tobacco and alcohol use, and occupational status were observed. A geographical analysis also exhibited significant variation over France. Such an indicator can be used at the individual level as a pedagogical tool to explain the observed individual health status. It is also of interest for the epidemiological studies, where it could contribute to a better understanding of the aging process and associated factors.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Immunization divide: who do get vaccinated in Bangladesh?

This paper examines inequalities in the use of, and access to, vaccination service in Bangladesh by analyzing national and small area-based datasets. The analysis showed that female children had a lower immunization coverage than male children--the difference persists for all antigens and widens against girls for higher doses. The immunization coverage was higher for children whose mothers were more educated. Children whose fathers had a higher-status occupation (salaried employment) were two-and-a-half times more likely to be immunized than children whose fathers held a lower-status job, e.g. day-labourer. The coverage for the poorest quintile was 70% of the well-to-do. Children residing in urban areas were more likely to be fully immunized than their rural counterparts (70% vs 59% for children aged 12-23 months). Within urban areas, the situation in slums was worse. Large differences existed among the various administrative regions of the country. Ethnic minorities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts had a lower immunization coverage than the Bangalees. In Sylhet, children of non-local workers in Bangladesh-owned tea estates had a lower coverage than their counterparts in foreign-owned tea estates. The study identifies children of various disadvantaged groups as having a lower coverage. Managers of immunization programmes must realize that only through removal of such disparities among groups will overall coverage be increased. Affirmative actions in targeting could be effective in reaching such groups.

Bangladesh↗
PubMed1992

Determinants of isometric muscle strength in men of different ages.

Values of maximal isometric strength of five muscle groups and associated factors including occupational status, life style and health were studied in three groups of men aged from 31 to 35, 51 to 55, and 71 to 75 years. The results indicated significant differences between the age groups in isometric handgrip, elbow flexion, knee extension, trunk extension and trunk flexion strength. In the youngest group, the manual workers tended to have higher strength values in all muscle groups than the lower and higher status white collar workers, whereas among the middle-aged and oldest men the manual workers tended to have the poorest performance. Good self-rated health and the intensity of physical exercise during leisure were positively associated with muscle strength in the youngest and middle-aged groups whereas in the oldest group the most important variable was home gymnastics. The multivariate structural equation models of isometric strength differed somewhat among the age groups and in these models the above-mentioned variables accounted for from 33% to 43% of the variance in isometric strength within the age groups. The results illustrated the most important factors associated with isometric strength in samples of men of different ages and also provided suggestions as to how these determinants might influence comparisons between different age groups in respect of muscle strength.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Increased lifetime prevalence of dental trauma is associated with previous non-dental injuries, mental distress and high alcohol consumption.

The purpose of the study was to assess the lifetime prevalence of dental injuries and risk factors involved in a general population-based birth cohort. The study population consisted of 5737 subjects who had participated in a health survey at the age of 31 years. Altogether 52% of the participants were women. This partly computer-based health survey included two questionnaires on previous dental and non-dental injuries, general health, occupational status and lifestyle. The current study was based on these questionnaires. The lifetime prevalence of dental fractures was 43% and the lifetime prevalence of dental luxations and exarticulations 14%. Men more commonly had dental injuries than women. Particularly mental distress and a history of previous injuries were shown to increase the risk for dental injuries. Furthermore, overweight and high alcohol consumption were positively associated with a high lifetime prevalence of tooth trauma. Regular physical activity decreased trauma occurrence. Socioeconomic status further affected the lifetime prevalence of dental injuries. The conclusion of the study was that personal, social and physical factors played a role in the occurrence of dental trauma.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Socioeconomic status does not affect the outcome of liver transplantation.

The outcome of liver transplantation is dependent on many factors. It was suggested that racial disparities in outcome may be related to differences in socioeconomic status (SES). In this retrospective study, we analyzed the effect of SES on graft and patient survival. Two hundred seventy-six adult patients who underwent liver transplantation at our institution from July 1988 to June 2001 were included in the analysis. Educational and occupation statuses were coded using established criteria (Hollingshead Index of Social Status [HI]). SES then was calculated using the HI formula: SES = education level x 3 + occupation x 5, and categorized into four groups: group 1, score less than 29 (n = 71); group 2, score of 29 to 42 (n = 82); group 3, score of 42 to 53 (n = 69); and group 4, score greater than 53 (n = 54). Kaplan-Meier analysis was used for graft and patient survival, and Cox regression analysis was used to determine the effect of confounding factors. Demographics of all four groups were similar. One-, 2-, and 5-year graft and patient survival did not differ significantly across groups by Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression survival analysis. In conclusion, SES did not predict graft and patient survival after liver transplantation.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

A systematic review of socio-economic differences in food habits in Europe: consumption of fruit and vegetables.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the differences in the consumption of fruit and vegetables between groups with different socio-economic status (SES) in the adult population of European countries. DESIGN: A systematic review of published and unpublished surveys of food habits conducted between 1985 and 1999 in 15 European countries. Educational level and occupational status were used as indicators of SES. A pooled estimate of the mean difference between the highest and the lowest level of education and occupation was calculated separately for men and women, using DerSimonian and Laird's random effects model. SETTING: The inclusion criteria of studies were: use of a validated method for assessing intake at the individual level; selection of a nationwide sample or a representative sample of a region; and providing the mean and standard deviation of overall fruit and vegetable consumption for each level of education or occupation, and separately for men and women. SUBJECTS: Participants in the individual surveys had to be adults (18-85 y). RESULTS: Eleven studies from seven countries met the criteria for being included in the meta-analysis. A higher SES was associated with a greater consumption of both fruit and vegetables. The pooled estimate of the difference in the intake of fruit was 24.3 g/person/day (95% confidence interval (CI) 14.0-34.7) between men in the highest level of education and those in the lowest level of education. Similarly, this difference was 33.6 g/person/day for women (95% CI 22.5-44.8). The differences regarding vegetables were 17.0 g/person/day (95% CI 8.6-25.5) for men and 13.4 g/person/day (95% CI 7.1-19.7) for women. The results were in the same direction when occupation instead of education was used as an indicator of SES. CONCLUSIONS: Although we cannot exclude over-reporting of intake by those with highest SES, it is unlikely that this potential bias could fully explain the differences we have found. Our results suggest that an unhealthier nutrition pattern may exist among adults belonging to lower socio-economic levels in Europe. SPONSORSHIP: The present study was supported by the European Union's FAIR programme (FAIR-97-3096).

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Accumulation of health risk behaviours is associated with lower socioeconomic status and women's urban residence: a multilevel analysis in Japan.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the socioeconomic differences in health-related behaviours in Japan. The present study was performed to elucidate the effects of individual and regional socioeconomic factors on selected health risk behaviours among Japanese adults, with a particular focus on regional variations. METHODS: In a nationally representative sample aged 25 to 59 years old (20,030 men and 21,076 women), the relationships between six risk behaviours (i.e., current smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, poor dietary habits, physical inactivity, stress and non-attendance of health check-ups), individual characteristics (i.e., age, marital status, occupation and household income) and regional (N = 60) indicators (per capita income and unemployment rate) were examined by multilevel analysis. RESULTS: Divorce, employment in women, lower occupational class and lower household income were generally associated with a higher likelihood of risk behaviour. The degrees of regional variation in risk behaviour and the influence of regional indicators were greater in women than in men: higher per capita income was significantly associated with current smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, stress and non-attendance of health check-ups in women. CONCLUSION: Individual lower socioeconomic status was a substantial predictor of risk behaviour in both sexes, while a marked regional influence was observed only in women. The accumulation of risk behaviours in individuals with lower socioeconomic status and in women in areas with higher income, reflecting an urban context, may contribute to their higher mortality rates.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

The determinants of mothers' knowledge of the Down syndrome before genetic counseling: part II.

Mothers coming for genetic counseling because they have an infant with the Down syndrome (DS) vary in their amount of knowledge about the cause, recurrence risk, and options for dealing with the recurrence risk. The purpose of this work has been to determine some predictors of the variability in mothers' knowledge of the DS before coming to genetic counseling. Data were collected before counseling through a detailed interview concerning mothers' knowledge of the DS, their demographic background, fertility plan, and attitude toward family planing. These data were "reduced" by multiple-regression analysis, to 7 variables used in a prediction equation for mothers' level of pre-knowledge attainment. These variables were then used to construct a model which was tested by path analysis. Results of analyses showed that about 2/3 of the variance in mothers' pre-knowledge of the DS could be accounted for by 5 independent variables: 1) time from diagnosis to counseling session, 2) date of counseling session, 3) nonreporting of emotional upset, 4) education-occupational status (EOS), and 5) utilization of birth control methods. These findings led to the conclusion that what occurs before counseling is of importance for the outcome of genetic counseling, as measured by the genetic information acquired by the counselees. Some precounseling precedures are suggested on how genetic counselors might be able to gain more control over the important factors that occur before actual counseling.

Down Syndrome↗
PubMed1994

Adolescent life experiences as predictors of occupational attainment.

Adolescent life experiences, measured with Owen's Biographical Questionnaire (BQ), were used to predict occupational attainment 16 years to 21 years later in a sample of 1,523 college graduates. Study participants completed the BQ in either 1968 or 1970-1973 as college freshmen and subsequently reported their occupational status in 1989. Jobs were rationally clustered into 18 different categories. Separate gender analyses were conducted in which 13 BQ factors were used as predictors of occupational attainment. Effect sizes were substantially larger than those obtained in an earlier study by A. G. Neiner and W. A. Owens (1985). The usefulness of life experience data for understanding occupational choices as well as implications for college counseling are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Family characteristics of children with dyslexia.

Few studies have been devoted to the family characteristics of children with dyslexia. The findings from the studies available are often contradictory with regard to father's socioeconomic status, parents' age, sibship size, and birth order. Mother's socioeconomic status has attracted little attention. The present study was based on a retrospective review of 249 children with severe dyslexia. The major findings were the low occupational status and educational level of parents and the predominance of high-ranking children in large sibships. However, parental age was not found to be an important risk factor. These findings are discussed in the light of previous results. Matrimonial status seemed unimportant. There was objective agreement upon the predominance of large sibships and high ordinal birth positions, although their significance remains poorly understood. No convincing support was found for the aging hypothesis. Mother's low socioeconomic and educational status may be an aggravating factor.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Effects of potential partners' physical attractiveness and socioeconomic status on sexuality and partner selection.

Male (n = 170) and female (n = 212) college students viewed photographs, which had been prerated for physical attractiveness, of three opposite-sex individuals. These photographs were paired with three levels of occupational status and income. Subjects indicated their willingness to engage in relationships of varying levels of sexual intimacy and marital potential with the portrayed individuals. Analyses of variance, correlations, and trend analyses supported the hypotheses. Compared to men, women are more likely to prefer or insist that sexual intercourse occur in relationships that involve affection and marital potential, and women place more emphasis than men do on partners' SES in such relationships. Consequently, men's SES and their willingness and ability to invest affection and resources in relationships may often outweigh the effects of their physical attractiveness in women's actual selection of partners. These results and the literature reviewed are more consistent with parental investment theory than with the view that these sex differences are solely the result of differential access to resources and differential socialization.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Prediction of discharge status of persons with brain injury in rehabilitation.

The present study sought to identify the factors as well as what would predict discharge of persons with brain injury. Demographics (age, pre-injury educational level, pre-injury occupational status) and Disability Rating Scale (DRS) scores during admission and upon discharge were used for discharge status prediction. A multiple discriminant analysis (MDA) revealed that the DRS scores at admission and upon discharge were significant predictors that correctly classified 72% of grouped cases.

Brain Injuries↗
PubMed2002

Individual and neighbourhood determinants of social participation and social capital: a multilevel analysis of the city of Malmö, Sweden.

The aim of this study was to analyse the impact of neighbourhood on individual social capital (measured as social participation). The study population consisted of 14,390 individuals aged 45-73 that participated in the Malmö diet and cancer study in 1992-1994, residing in 90 neighbourhoods of Malmö, Sweden (population 250,000). A multilevel logistic regression model, with individuals at the first level and neighbourhoods at the second level, was performed. The study analysed the effect (intra-area correlation and cross-level modification) of the neighbourhood on individual social capital after adjustment for compositional factors (e.g. age, sex, educational level, occupational status, disability pension, living alone, sick leave, unemployment) and, finally, one contextual migration factor. The prevalence of low social participation varied from 23.0% to 39.7% in the first and third neighbourhood quartiles, respectively. Neighbourhood factors accounted for 6.3% of the total variance in social participation, and this effect was reduced but not eliminated when adjusting for all studied variables (-73%), especially the occupational composition of the neighbourhoods (-58%). The contextual migration variable further reduced the variance in social participation at the neighbourhood level to some extent. Our study supports Putnam's notion that social capital, which is suggested to be an important factor for population health and possibly for health equity, is an aspect that is partly contextual in its nature.

Aged↗