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PubMed1993

Understanding U.S. alcohol consumption with social and economic factors: a multivariate time series analysis, 1950-1986.

The contribution of social and economic variables to changes in per capita alcohol consumption occurring between 1950 and 1986 is examined within a multivariate time series analysis framework. Specifically, we consider the net effects of family income, age structure of the population, marital instability, female labor force participation, real alcohol price and daily life routines on total alcohol consumption. Our findings indicate that changes in the population age structure and in daily life routines were associated with predicted changes in consumption over the period studied. They also indicate associations between marital instability and female labor force participation and consumption, although in the direction contrary to our prediction. Unlike a number of previous studies in which economic variables were found to be the major determinants of consumption trends, we find that family income and the price of alcohol play a minor role in the model we estimated. These results indicate that social structural factors have greater utility for our understanding of alcohol consumption patterns, and, by implication, for attempts to reduce alcohol-related social problems, than do economic factors.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Urban aspects of labor migration: the situation in the countries of origin].

"A bibliographical review serves to analyze the role of urban growth in patterns of international labor-force migration, as well as the effect of this migration on the development of the countries of origin, especially on their cities. While the review confirms the general idea that international migrants are either peasants or highly qualified personnel, it also shows that qualified workers are increasingly involved in international labor movements and that a great part of them come from large cities. It is to be expected that in these circumstances large cities of the countries of origin will become more integrated to international migratory systems." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Demography↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Income as a condition of self care in the aged].

The current type of distribution of tasks between the generations leads to a system of income maintenance programs for the aged, which is based on their own past (largely statutory) provision for their old age income via public institutions. On the whole, the aged are to a very limited degree in the labor force. Most of them receive public transfer payments. On the average, the diverse income maintenance systems dependent on own past performance provide a fairly substantial income level when compared with wages and salaries. The transfer level is largely dependent on the type of old age security institution, on the extent of past labor force participation or contribution and past income; consequently it is quite diverse. Sex largely correlates with income differentials. While some groups end up with retirement incomes higher than their last wage income, others are definitely needy. Especially women constitute a substantial part of the poor. Besides low income, the danger of becoming a nursing case makes the aged dependent on other persons' or institutions' aid. The forthcoming reform of the public pension system shows little hope of eliminating the pockets of poverty among the aged by assuring a redistribution also among the aged.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

Public policy and employment of people with disabilities: exploring new paradigms.

A "sea change" in public attitudes, legislation, and political power at the end of the 20th century in the United States has helped set the stage in the early 21st century for the entry of people with disabilities into the labor force. Major pieces of federal legislation have altered national policy with the intention of maximizing the work force participation of people with disabilities. At the same time, a new theoretical paradigm of disability has emerged, which emphasizes community inclusion, accommodation, and protection of civil rights. This "New Paradigm" of disability can be applied in concert with rigorous behavioral science methodologies to shed light on the outcomes of recent federal policy changes regarding the labor force participation of people with disabilities. In so doing, social science can be used in more meaningful ways to understand both the intended and unintended consequences of federal policy.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMed1995

Black women, work, stress, and perceived discrimination: the focused support group model as an intervention for stress reduction.

This exploratory study examined the use of two components (small and large groups) of a community-based intervention, the Focused Support Group (FSG) model, to alleviate employment-related stressors in Black women. Participants were assigned to small groups based on occupational status. Groups met for five weekly 3-hr sessions in didactic or small- and large-group formats. Two evaluations following the didactic session and the small and large group sessions elicited information on satisfaction with each of the formats, self-reported change in stress, awareness of interpersonal and sociopolitical issues affecting Black women in the labor force, assessing support networks, and usefulness of specific discussion topics to stress reduction. Results indicated the usefulness of the small- and large-group formats in reduction of self-reported stress and increases in personal and professional sources of support. Discussions on race and sex discrimination in the workplace were effective in overall stress reduction. The study highlights labor force participation as a potential source of stress for Black women, and supports the development of culture- and gender-appropriate community interventions as viable and cost-effective methods for stress reduction.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Impact of diabetes on employment and income in Manitoba, Canada.

OBJECTIVE: To compare employment and income of working-age (18-64 years) people with and without diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We conducted a prospective population-based cohort study based in Manitoba, Canada, consisting of 25,554 individuals without diabetes and 608 with diabetes, of whom 242 had a complication of the disease. Adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of employment and income variables were determined. RESULTS: Diabetic individuals with complications were twice as likely not to be in the labor force (OR 2.07 [95% CI 1.49-2.87]) than nondiabetic individuals. This difference was not evident for diabetic individuals without complications (OR 1.20 [0.93-1.56]). Diabetic individuals without complications had incomes similar to those of nondiabetic individuals. The total income of diabetic individuals with complications was 72% of the income of nondiabetic individuals. When the analysis was limited to only those in the labor force, diabetic workers with complications still had only 85% the employment income of nondiabetic people. Diabetic individuals with complications received 58% more social support income. In a separate analysis of aboriginal individuals, complicated diabetes was not associated with an increased likelihood of not working or a decrease in employment income. CONCLUSIONS: In general, complications of diabetes and the absence of the disease affect the ability to earn income in Manitoba, Canada. This effect was not identified in the aboriginal population of the province.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Potential consequences of raising the Social Security eligibility age on low-income older workers.

To examine the potential consequences of raising the Social Security retirement age on future cohorts of low-income elders, this study, based on data from the Health and Retirement Study, 1992-1994, identifies factors that may hinder or facilitate continuous employment among older workers born between 1931 and 1941. Specifically, following the analysis of labor-force participation rates and self-reported reasons for non-work, multivariate logistic regression models tested the relationship between individual strengths and constraints, social-structural opportunities and constraints, and economic need variables and the likelihood of work. The findings show that for both men and women, having disabilities was the most significant predictor of non-work. Racial differences, especially in men's labor-force participation rates, appeared to be due in large part to significant racial differences in disability rates. A higher proportion of blacks and Hispanics than whites also reported that they were unemployed. Based on the findings, raising the Social Security eligibility age is likely to result in increased numbers of Disability Insurance (DI) claimants, and the fiscal impact of such an increase needs to be examined. The need to assist unemployed older persons is also discussed.

Aged↗
PubMed1984

A dynamic analysis of women's employment exits.

This research examines women's rates of leaving a job to become nonemployed (unemployed or out of the labor force) using a stochastic, continuous-time model. The data consist of employment histories of white women constructed from the National Longitudinal Survey of Young Women (1968-1973). The results demonstrate the importance of examining the underlying processes in women's employment. Several differences are found between the determinants of employment exits and what might be expected from the cross-sectional and panel literature on female labor force participation. The findings also provide evidence of the interdependence of fertility and employment, with young children increasing rates of employment exits and with high wages on a job decreasing rates of leaving a job because of a pregnancy. Finally, involuntary employment terminations are examined, and their transition rates are found to decrease with job wages and job tenure and to increase when a woman has children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Recent developments in the employment and retirement of older workers in Germany.

Against a background of an aging population, rising social security costs, and foreseeable labor and skill shortages, there have been public policy changes affecting older workers in Germany. Labor-market related initiatives aim at an increase of labor force participation among this group. Enterprise-related, active age-management strategies aim at improving occupational conditions of aging workers. In this context, prolonging the working life must be seen as one option of "active aging." Another view of the current retirement discussion is the question of how the unused potential of Germany's younger, early-retired seniors can be exploited. Active aging has become a social duty nowadays, with the intention that older persons contribute to society to avoid generational conflicts. In the future, active aging will preserve the competitiveness of enterprises and of the entire economy, despite an aging labor force. But gerontological research points out that different options to carry out individual life plans of active aging are also required. This article reviews the changes in public policies towards older workers and includes the findings of a project that illustrates good practice to combat age barriers in the labor world.

Aged↗
PubMed2000

Maternal employment and time with children: dramatic change or surprising continuity?

Despite the rapid rise in mothers' labor force participation, mothers' time with children has tended to be quite stable over time. In the past, nonemployed mothers' time with children was reduced by the demands of unpaid family work and domestic chores and by the use of mother substitutes for childcare, especially in large families. Today employed mothers seek ways to maximize time with children: They remain quite likely to work part-time or to exit from the labor force for some years when their children are young; they also differ from nonemployed mothers in other uses of time (housework, volunteer work, leisure). In addition, changes in children's lives (e.g., smaller families, the increase in preschool enrollment, the extended years of financial dependence on parents as more attend college) are altering the time and money investments that children require from parents. Within marriage, fathers are spending more time with their children than in the past, perhaps increasing the total time children spend with parents even as mothers work more hours away from home.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Annual productivity costs due to cervical cancer mortality in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have estimated annual US health care costs associated with cervical cancer; however, few data are available on the corresponding annual loss in women's productive earnings resulting from premature mortality owing to cervical cancer. The present study estimates annual productivity costs associated with cervical cancer mortality in the United States. METHODS: An analytic framework was developed for estimating the lost earnings that would have accrued during 2000 for women dying from cervical cancer during that and earlier years, who would have otherwise been alive and working in 2000. The following data from publicly available sources were gathered and analyzed for US women on an age-specific basis: 1) annual number of cervical cancer deaths during 2000 and preceding years; 2) estimated probability of otherwise being alive during 2000, for women dying from cervical cancer during the period 1935-2000; 3) labor force participation rates in 2000; and 4) mean annual earnings in 2000. RESULTS: Overall, it was estimated that there were 130,377 women who would have been alive during 2000 had they not died from cervical cancer during that or a previous year. Over 75% of these women died before age 60, with >25% dying prior to age 40, and it was estimated that 37,594 (29%) of these women would have had labor force earnings during 2000. The total productivity loss in 2000 owing to cervical cancer mortality was estimated at $1.3 billion. CONCLUSIONS: The annual productivity loss for cervical cancer estimated in the present analysis is several times higher than recent estimates of the annual US direct medical costs associated with cervical cancer ($300-$400 million).

Adult↗
PubMed1980

The relationship to alcoholism of occupation, class and employment.

The status of the labor market is of importance in the employment of alcoholic persons, but is usually neglected in medical reports. The aim of the present paper is to assess the prevalence of alcoholism among men in different occupations and classes within as well as outside of the labor force. The data were taken from a Swedish general population study, the now twice-resurveyed Lundby 1947 cohort (N = 952). Information was collected through field interviews conducted independently of the administrative recording, but was checked afterwards against documentary records. Occupation, class and employment were independent variables; alcoholism was a dependent variable. It was found that alcoholism was most prevalent among workers (11.1%), among small scale entrepreneurs (13.7%) and among groups outside of the labor force (13.9%), particularly the subgroup early retired and unemployed (29.6%). The findings suggest a relation to current crisis tendencies in the Swedish "welfare"society.

Alcoholism↗
PubMed1991

Work behavior after the onset of arthritis.

Considerable evidence indicates that poor health has significant negative effects on labor force market activity. Nevertheless, because most of these analyses are based on cross-sectional data, their findings only indicate the relationship between poor health and work at a moment in time. This article uses a dynamic hazard model to examine how the onset of arthritis affects work behavior over the life cycle. The results indicate that the deterioration of health over time is the most significant determinant of why men with arthritis leave the labor force earlier than their otherwise healthy counterparts. These findings imply that the health-work relationship should be examined within the context of a life cycle framework to obtain a complete picture of the economic consequences of poor health.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

"Man, woman, and chore boy": transformations in the antagonistic demands of work and care on women in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Because the population is aging when increasing numbers of women are entering the labor force, policy makers stress the problems of reconciling the conflict between work and care. This conflict has a long history, especially for poor women and women of color. During the nineteenth century, caregiving was more likely to clash with domestic work than with paid employment. The expansion of the health care delivery system between 1890 and 1940 removed some responsibilities from the home. But rather than disappearing, many caregiving obligations changed. The growth of women's labor force participation altered the relation between work and care. Some women quit jobs they desperately needed when family members fell ill. Others left serious sick or disabled family members unattended.

Caregivers↗
PubMed2004

Impacts of informal caregiver availability on long-term care expenditures in OECD countries.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the effects of informal caregiver availability and public funding on formal long-term care (LTC) expenditures in developed countries. DATA SOURCE/STUDY SETTING: Secondary data were acquired for 15 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries from 1970 to 2000. STUDY DESIGN: Secondary data analysis, applying fixed- and random-effects models to time-series cross-sectional data. Outcome variables are inpatient or home heath LTC expenditures. Key explanatory variables are measures of the availability of informal caregivers, generosity in public funding for formal LTC, and the proportion of the elderly population in the total population. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHOD: Aggregated macro data were obtained from OECD Health Data, United Nations Demographic Yearbooks, and U.S. Census Bureau International Data Base. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Most of the 15 OECD countries experienced growth in LTC expenditures over the study period. The availability of a spouse caregiver, measured by male-to-female ratio among the elderly, is associated with a $28,840 (1995 U.S. dollars) annual reduction in formal LTC expenditure per additional elderly male. Availability of an adult child caregiver, measured by female labor force participation and full-time/part-time status shift, is associated with a reduction of $310 to $3,830 in LTC expenditures. These impacts on LTC expenditure vary across countries and across time within a country. CONCLUSIONS: The availability of an informal caregiver, particularly a spouse caregiver, is among the most important factors explaining variation in LTC expenditure growth. Long-term care policies should take into account behavioral responses: decreased public funding in LTC may lead working women to leave the labor force to provide more informal care.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

[Quality of quality: a workers' health perspective]

In Brazil, new forms of labor organization based on the so-called Japanese management model are characterized by the implementation of Total Quality Programs, heavily altering relations in the labor force. Pressures brought to bear by modernity, such as demand for quality, affect workers and result in physical and mental disturbances. A case study focusing on a textile industry in Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro State, aimed at elucidating how such programs are formulated in such a way as to increase product quality without changing quality of life for workers. We detected precarious work conditions alongside sophisticated requirements, including abstraction, internalized control, dissemination of the supplier/client concept, etc., running up against a labor force with limited schooling, thus creating a tense atmosphere with a steady speed-up in the work pace, albeit with no real gains for workers.

Journal Article↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Structural determinants of the abortion rate: a cross-societal analysis.

Data for a sample of 89 countries are used to examine societal-level predictors of the legal status of abortion and its incidence as indicated by abortion rates. Measures of socioeconomic development, women's labor force participation, and dominant religion are considered as predictors of abortion. Logistic regression analysis reveals that socioeconomic development has a positive effect on the probability of abortion being legal. Both a greater dominance of Catholicism and Islam in a society reduce the probability that abortion is legal. Results of tobit analyses show that development has curvilinear effects on abortion rates, with lower rates of abortion at both the lower and higher ends of development. Findings also indicate a positive effect of female labor force participation on the abortion rate that initially grows stronger with increases in socioeconomic development, but weakens with further increases. Finally, a greater proportion of Catholics in a population lowers the abortion rate.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMed2006

[Older female employees in Germany - structures of employment and perspectives of the future].

This contribution presents an overview to the structures and conditions of employment of older female employees in Germany. Based on information about the labor force participation rates, rates of unemployment and occupational patterns the conditions of female employment beyond midlife are examined. Relating to the standard of living, the meaning of employment for older women is discussed. Furthermore, the effects of regulations of welfare state, i. e., pension systems, on future life of the employed women are highlighted. Further topics are the completion of working life and the transition to retirement of female employees, the issue of the future working conditions of older female employees related with demographic change und future reduction of the potential of labor force. Finally the contribution stresses the importance of a holistic approach to investigate the living and working conditions of older female employees.

Age Factors↗