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PubMed1983

Trigeminal orosensation and ingestive behavior in the rat.

A deafferentation procedure was used to examine the contributions of trigeminal orosensation to the control of ingestive behavior in the rat. The procedure removed somatosensory input from the mouth, sparing olfaction, lingual taste, and vibrissae inputs as well as proprioceptive afferents from and efferents to the jaw muscles. Rats with sections of tongue or jaw muscle efferents served as oromotor controls. Bilateral trigeminal orosensory deafferentation was followed by an array of effects on ingestive behavior whose magnitudes were proportional to the extent of the deafferentation. The "trigeminal syndrome" includes a disruption of food and water intake (aphagia, adipsia), impairments in the sensorimotor control of eating and drinking, decreased responsiveness to food and water, and a reduction in the level of body weight regulation. Trigeminal deafferentation spared elementary ingestive movement patterns (biting, licking, chewing) but disrupted their control by the perioral stimuli, which normally elicit them, so that eating and drinking sequences were either aborted or inefficient. Deficits in food intake varied with the sensory properties of the diet. Recovery of intake took place along a palatability gradient, and recovery of water intake paralleled that of dry food. The chronically reduced body weight was caused by a persistent hypophagia and reflects reduced responsiveness to food. These findings suggest a considerable degree of overlap in the neural mechanisms mediating the sensorimotor and motivational control of intake in the rat.

Alveolar Process↗
PubMed1994

Differential sensitivity of operant behaviors to changes in the concentration of a sucrose reinforcer: effects of pimozide.

The sensitivity of operant response rates to changes in a sucrose reinforcer was examined in well-trained animals maintained on a variable ratio (VR) or variable interval (VI) schedule (experiment 1). Although VR performance showed greater resistance to small reductions in the concentration of the sucrose reinforcer than VI performance, VR performance was more sensitive to large reductions in the sucrose concentration. Despite this differential sensitivity only the smallest dose of pimozide (0.125 mg/kg) differentially affected these behaviors by reducing VI rates without affecting VR rates. These and other results support the view that low doses of pimozide reduce the hedonic impact of the reinforcer. The results also indicate that the attenuation of operant responding by higher doses (0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg) cannot be solely a result of the blunting of reward. Experiment 2 demonstrated that when rats drink in daily, brief one-bottle tests they show greater resistance to reductions in the sucrose concentration than when they lever-press for sucrose, and require a higher dose of pimozide (2.0 mg/kg) to attenuate consumption. Together the results of both experiments suggest that the greater the resistance to reductions in the reinforcement value, the greater the dose of pimozide necessary to attenuate performance. We discuss the importance of attaining a more complete understanding of the factors in control of operant performance in order to better assess the effects of neuroleptics on reward.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Stress-related behavior and central norepinephrine concentrations in the REM sleep-deprived rat.

Rapid eye movement sleep deprivation (REMd) is a potent stressor in the rat. Behavioral abnormalities are among the earliest overt symptoms of REMd, the mechanisms for which remain largely unknown. The phenomena of hyperphagia and weight loss that are associated with REMd may contribute to its later morbidity; however, little is known about the onset of these phenomena or the neurotransmitter mechanisms that are involved. The aim of this study was to determine whether the earliest effects of REMd on consumatory behavior in the rat and its performance in the swimming cylinder of Porsolt are related to changes in norepinephrine (NE) concentrations in the cerebral cortex and selected areas of the hypothalamus. Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups (n = 6): the REMd group resided in a water tank on 6.5-cm diameter pedestals for 96 h; the tank control (TC) group resided in the water tank on 15-cm pedestals for 96 h; the cage controls (CC) remained in their home cages for the duration of the study. In the first series of experiments, body weights and caloric intake were recorded daily, along with the performance of all animals in the swimming cylinder of Porsolt. In the second series of experiments, body weights and caloric intake were recorded, but the Porsolt test was not employed and the brains were dissected after 96 h for NE analysis by HPLC. It was observed that the REMd group had lower immobility times (p < 0.05) in the Porsolt test after only 24 h, compared to groups TC and CC.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Evidence that oral and nutrient reinforcers differentially condition appetitive and consummatory responses to flavors.

Rats tend to increase their intake of a flavor that has previously been paired with either sweet taste or with caloric repletion. However, it is unclear whether such a change in intake is caused by changes in appetitive behaviors such as orienting and approach, or changes in consummatory behaviors and oral responsiveness. Also, it is unclear whether oral reinforcers (sweetness) and postingestive reinforcers (nutrients) lead to the same kinds of behavioral change. In the current experiments, weanling rats with oral and gastric cannulas repeatedly experienced a flavor paired with either sweetness, high caloric density, or neither. Rats were then tested for differences in appetitive olfactory orienting and consummatory oral responsiveness elicited by the flavor. Results suggest that oral reinforcement (sweetness) produces conditioning of appetitive responding to the flavor, while postingestive reinforcement produces conditioning of consummatory responding. A second experiment indicates that these behavioral changes are specific increases in responsiveness conditioned by flavor + unconditioned stimulus (US) pairing, and are unlikely to be nonspecific effects of daily unconditioned stimulus exposure.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Axonal regeneration in the central nervous system of aplysia californica determined by anterograde transport of biocytin.

Rhythmic biting, a component of consummatory feeding behavior in the sea hare Aplysia californica, is eliminated following bilateral cerebral-buccal connective (CBC) crushes and recovers within 14 days postlesion. To assess axonal regeneration after CBC lesions, we used biocytin backfills of CBCs followed by fluorescence labeling with streptavidin-lissamine rhodamine. Anterograde transport of biocytin showed up to 1 mm of outgrowth by regenerating axons at 3 days postlesion. At 7 days postlesion, the regenerated axons approached or had entered the ipsilateral buccal neuropil and exhibited numerous varicosities; the average rate of axonal growth was 326 microm/day for the longest, most rapidly growing axons labeled in the CBC. The number of varicosities on labeled axons, suggestive of intercellular interactions, was increased dramatically at all times postlesion. At 14 and 20 days postlesion, regenerated axons branched extensively in the ipsilateral buccal neuropil, entered the contralateral buccal neuropil, and entered peripheral nerves on both sides of the midline. At these later times postlesion, some labeled axons encircled unlabeled buccal cell bodies and exhibited branches containing numerous varicosities, indicative of axosomatic contacts. Some regenerating axons were observed in the sheath of the CBC, but the vast majority of labeled axons remained confined to the connective core, as in control preparations. The bilateral projections within the buccal ganglia of labeled cerebral-to-buccal axons and the large number of varicosities present on these processes are indicative of regenerating axons and synapses that likely contribute to the functional recovery of rhythmic biting.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Structure and function in the cerebral ganglion.

Evidence is reviewed to evaluate whether the term "brain is justified in referring to the snail's cerebral ganglion. The focus of the review is terrestrial species, with particular attention given to the genus Helix. In accordance with a standard definition of "brain, the cerebral ganglion is found to be differentiated both structurally and functionally. It receives convergent sensory inputs from a variety of anterior sensory organs plus the posterior body wall. Its outputs comprise motor commands directed towards anterior muscle systems, e.g., the tentacles and the penis, as well as premotor commands directed towards executory centers in other ganglia, e.g., the buccal, visceral, and pedal ganglia. Of the three major divisions in the ganglion, the procerebrum and the mesocerebrum are the most differentiated, whereas the metacerebrum is the least differentiated. The specializations of the procerebrum for olfactory functions, and the mesocerebrum for reproductive functions, reflect the importance of adaptations for feeding and mating in the evolution of the Gastropoda.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Neurotransmitter phenotypes of intermediate zone reticular formation projections to the motor trigeminal and hypoglossal nuclei in the rat.

Numerous studies suggest an essential role for the intermediate (IRt) and parvocellular (PCRt) reticular formation (RF) in consummatory ingestive responses. Although the IRt and PCRt contain a large proportion of neurons with projections to the oromotor nuclei, these areas of the RF are heterogeneous with respect to neurotransmitter phenotypes. Glutamatergic, GABAergic, cholinergic, and nitrergic neurons are all found in the PCRt and IRt, but the projections of neurons with these phenotypes to the motor trigeminal (mV) and hypoglossal nucleus (mXII) has not been fully evaluated. In the present study, after small injections of Fluorogold (FG) into mV and mXII, sections were processed immunohistochemically to detect retrogradely labeled FG neurons in combination with the synthetic enzymes for nitric oxide (nitric oxide synthase) or acetylcholine (choline acetyltransferase) or in situ hybridization for the synthetic enzyme for GABA (GAD65/67) or the brainstem vesicular transporter for glutamate (VGLUT2). In three additional cases, FG injections were made into one motor nucleus and cholera toxin (subunit b) injected in the other to determine the presence of dual projection neurons. Premotor neurons to mXII (pre-mXII) were highly concentrated in the IRt. In contrast, there were nearly equal proportions of premotor-trigeminal neurons (pre-mV) in the IRt and PCRt. A high proportion of pre-oromotor neurons were positive for VGLUT2 (pre-mXII: 68%; pre-mV: 53%) but GABAergic projections were differentially distributed with a greater projection to mV (25%) compared to mXII (8%). Significant populations of cholinergic and nitrergic neurons overlapped pre-oromotor neurons, but there was sparse double-labeling (<10%). The IRt also contained a high proportion of neurons that projected to both mV and MXII. These different classes of premotor neurons in the IRt and PCRt provide a substrate for the rhythmic activation of lingual and masticatory muscles.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMed1980

Amobarbital sodium reduces successive gustatory contrast.

Amobarbital sodium (17.5 mg/kg) produced equivalent reductions in negative contrast when injected for the first time on either day 1 or 2 following a shift from 32% to 4% sucrose. These results differed from those obtained in earlier studies with chlordiazepoxide.

Amobarbital↗
PubMed1991

An animal model of anhedonia: attenuation of sucrose consumption and place preference conditioning by chronic unpredictable mild stress.

Chronic exposure to very mild unpredictable stress has previously been found to depress the consumption of, and preference for, highly palatable sweet solutions. The present study used the place conditioning procedure to investigate whether these effects result from a decreased sensitivity to reward. Rats were subjected to chronic mild unpredictable stress for a total of 4 weeks. During weeks 3 and 4, they received four training trials, in which rewards were presented in a distinctive environment, and four further non-rewarded trials in a different environment. The rewards used in different experiments were food pellets, dilute (0.7%) and concentrated (34%) sucrose solutions, and dl-amphetamine sulphate (0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg). In all experiments, non-stressed animals showed an increase in preference for the environment associated with reward; in stressed animals, these effects were abolished or greatly attenuated. Chronic unpredictable mild stress, which may be comparable in intensity to the difficulties people encounter in their daily lives, appears to cause a generalized decrease in sensitivity to rewards.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed1991

Reward-dependent suppression or facilitation of consummatory behaviour by raclopride.

Rats were presented for 1 h with 0.7%, 7% or 34% sucrose solutions, either separately with water as an alternative (two-bottle test), or with all three concentrations concurrently available (three-bottle test). In trained animals, 7% sucrose produced the highest intakes in the two-bottle test, but 34% sucrose was preferred in the three-bottle test. In both tests the dopamine D-2 antagonist raclopride (100-400 micrograms/kg) reduced intake of 0.7% sucrose solution, but increased intake of 34% sucrose; both effects were apparent during the first 5 min of testing. In the two-bottle test, intake of the intermediate 7% concentration showed both effects: an immediate decrease and a later increase. In the three-bottle test, sucrose-naive animals showed a gradual onset of preference for 34% sucrose, and enhancements of intake by raclopride were not at first immediate; immediate enhancements required three sessions of exposure. Raclopride did not alter the consumption of a 0.001% solution of quinine. We consider the implications of these results for theories of neuroleptic drug action.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

The effects of morphine in the consummatory contrast paradigm.

Rats shifted from 32% to 4% sucrose show a negative contrast effect, licking significantly less than animals that receive only 4% sucrose. The effects of morphine sulfate (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, and 16.0 mg/kg) on negative contrast were investigated in four experiments. Contrast was reduced on both the 1st and 2nd postshift day by the 4.0 and 8.0 mg/kg doses, but the effects were less robust than those seen with the benzodiazepines. The effects of morphine on contrast were dissociable from simple increases in sucrose consumption. Naloxone (0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg) had no effect on contrast or sucrose intake. However, the contrast-reducing effect of morphine (4.0 mg/kg) was blocked by pretreatment with naloxone (0.50 mg/kg). The results are discussed in terms of other anxiolytic screening paradigms that have obtained "partial anxiolytic effects" using morphine.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A reduces appetitive and consummatory responses for food.

RATIONALE: The CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A reduces food intake in rats. This effect is likely to depend on modulation of reward related processes. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of SR141716A on responding for food under a second order instrumental task in which responding and consumption of food can be separated, and on Pavlovian responding for a stimulus predictive of food reward. METHODS: Instrumental responding and pellet consumption following administration of SR141716A (0-3 mg/kg) were recorded under an FI5 min FR5(5:S) operant schedule that incorporates both a 5 min initial appetitive phase and a 25 min consummatory phase. We compared the drug-induced change in responding to that recorded following a reduction in motivational state induced by pre-feeding. In a second experiment we assessed the effects of SR141716A (0-3 mg/kg) on Pavlovian approach behaviour for a stimulus (lever) associated with food reward (CS+) and a neutral stimulus (lever) not associated with reward (CS-). RESULTS: SR141716A reduced pellet consumption and instrumental responding during both the appetitive and consummatory phases of the second order schedule. Pre-feeding had a similar effect on responding during the appetitive phase, suggesting an effect on incentive motivation. SR141716A also blocked an enhancement of responding that occurred during the consummatory phase in pre-fed animals. SR141716A and pre-feeding had no effect on responding in the Pavlovian autoshaping paradigm. CONCLUSIONS: SR141716A impacts on motivational processes in both the appetitive and consummatory phases of feeding behaviour.

Animals↗