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Multisensory interactions follow the hands across the midline: evidence from a non-spatial visual-tactile congruency task.

Crossing the hands over, whether across the body midline or with respect to each other, leads to measurable changes in spatial compatibility, spatial attention, and frequently to a general decrement in discrimination performance for tactile stimuli. The majority of multisensory crossed hands effects, however, have been demonstrated with explicit or implicit spatial discrimination tasks, raising the question of whether non-spatial discrimination tasks also show spatial effects when the hands are crossed. We designed a novel, non-spatial tactile discrimination task to address this issue. Participants made speeded discriminations of single- versus double-pulse vibrotactile targets, while trying to ignore simultaneous visual distractor stimuli, in both hands uncrossed and hands crossed postures. Tactile discrimination performance was significantly affected by the visual distractors (demonstrating a significant crossmodal congruency effect) and was affected most by visual distractors in the same external location as the tactile target (i.e., spatial modulation), regardless of the posture (uncrossed or crossed) of the hands (i.e., spatial 'remapping' of visual-tactile interactions). Finally, crossing the hands led to a general performance decrement with visual distractors, but not in a control task with unimodal visual or tactile judgements. These results demonstrate, for the first time, significant spatial and postural modulations of crossmodal congruency effects in a non-spatial discrimination task.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

The relationship between local and global processing and the processing of high and low spatial frequencies studied by event-related potentials and source modeling.

The processing of global and local elements and of low- and high-spatial frequencies are thought to be interrelated. Evidence for this stems from findings showing that brain localizations for global/local elements and for low/high spatial frequencies seem to overlap. The present study aimed to provide direct evidence that topographical differences between the processing of global and local visual elements can directly be explained by their spatial frequency content, and to study at which point in time this relation is present. This was done by studying the event-related potentials (ERPs) and source models elicited by unfiltered, low- or high-pass filtered hierarchical stimuli. Results showed that performance for global and local targets was affected by removing low and high spatial frequencies, respectively. ERP data indicated that at 250 ms, there was an interaction between the processing of global/local targets and of spatial frequencies because at this time-point removal of low spatial frequencies decreased activity associated with the processing of global targets. When localizing this effect, we found evidence implying that spatial frequency content indeed affected the brain region in which local/global targets were processed. Results implicated that the processing of global information depended on its low spatial frequency content, which was processed more laterally. Instead, processing of local information seemed to depend on its high spatial frequency content, which was processed more medially. Thereby, present results extend former results showing that global and local processing is dependent on spatial frequency and mapped retinotopically in the visual cortex.

Adolescent↗

The influence of visual experience on the ability to form spatial mental models based on route and survey descriptions.

The purpose of the present study is twofold: the first objective is to evaluate the importance of visual experience for the ability to form a spatial representation (spatial mental model) of fairly elaborate spatial descriptions. Secondly, we examine whether blind people exhibit the same preferences (i.e. level of performance on spatial tasks) as sighted people in processing the type of perspective that is employed in a spatial description. Early blind, late blind and sighted participants listened to a route and a survey description of two environments. Next, they had to execute a recognition/priming task, a bird flight distance comparison task, and a scale model task. Spatial priming and symbolic distance effects were found for all participants. These findings suggest that early and late blind people can form spatial mental models on the basis of route and survey descriptions. Interestingly, in contrast with sighted people, blind people performed better after listening to a route than a survey description, even when the spatial problems that has to be solved explicitly favor the survey description. It seems that people with active vision build up a spatial mental model more efficiently from a survey description, while people with only visual memories (late blind), similar to people with no visual memories (early blind), build up a spatial mental model more efficiently from a route description.

Adult↗

Spatial models of virus-immune dynamics.

To date, the majority of theoretical models describing the dynamics of infectious diseases in vivo are based on the assumption of well-mixed virus and cell populations. Because many infections take place in solid tissues, spatially structured models represent an important step forward in understanding what happens when the assumption of well-mixed populations is relaxed. Here, we explore models of virus and virus-immune dynamics where dispersal of virus and immune effector cells was constrained to occur locally. The stability properties of our spatial virus-immune dynamics models remained robust under almost all biologically plausible dispersal schemes, regardless of their complexity. The various spatial dynamics were compared to the basic non-spatial dynamics and important differences were identified: When space was assumed to be homogeneous, the dynamics generated by non-spatial and spatially structured models differed substantially at the peak of the infection. Thus, non-spatial models may lead to systematic errors in the estimates of parameters underlying acute infection dynamics. When space was assumed to be heterogeneous, spatial coupling not only changed the equilibrium properties of the uncoupled populations but also equalized the dynamics and thereby reduced the likelihood of dynamic elimination of the infection. In line with experimental and clinical observations, long-lasting oscillation periods were virtually absent. When source-sink dynamics were considered, the long-term outcome of the infection depended critically on the degree of spatial coupling. The infection collapsed when emigration from source sites became too large. Finally, we discuss the implications of spatially structured models on medical treatment of infectious diseases, and note that a huge gap exists in data accurately describing infection dynamics in solid tissues.

Chronic Disease↗

A functional MRI study of preparatory signals for spatial location and objects.

We investigated preparatory signals for spatial location and objects in normal observers using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Activity for attention-directing cues was separated from activity for subsequent test arrays containing the target stimulus. Subjects were more accurate in discriminating a target face among distracters when they knew in advance its location (spatial directional cue), as compared to when the target could randomly appear at one of two locations (spatial neutral cue), indicating that the spatial cue was used. Spatially specific activations occurred in a region at the intersection of the ventral intraparietal sulcus and transverse occipital sulcus (vIPS-TOS), which showed significantly stronger activation for rightward- than leftward-directing cues, while other fronto-parietal areas were activated by the cue but did not show spatial specificity. In visual cortex, activity was weak or absent in retinotopic occipital regions following attention-directing cues and this activity was not spatially specific. In a separate task, subject discriminated a target outdoor scene among distracters after the presentation of spatial neutral cues. There was no significant difference in dorsal frontoparietal activity during the face versus scene discrimination task. Also, there was only weak evidence for selective preparatory activity in ventral object-selective regions, although the activation of these regions to the subsequent test array did depend upon which discrimination (face or place) was performed. We conclude first that under certain circumstances, spatial cues that produce strong behavioral effects may modulate parietal-occipital regions in a spatially specific manner without producing similar modulations in retinotopic occipital regions. Second, attentional modulations of object-selective regions in temporal-occipital cortex can occur even though preparatory object-selective modulations of those regions are absent or weak.

Analysis of Variance↗

Spatial epidemiology: an emerging (or re-emerging) discipline.

Spatial epidemiology is the study of spatial variation in disease risk or incidence. Several ecological processes can result in strong spatial patterns of such risk or incidence: for example, pathogen dispersal might be highly localized, vectors or reservoirs for pathogens might be spatially restricted, or susceptible hosts might be clumped. Here, we briefly describe approaches to spatial epidemiology that are spatially implicit, such as metapopulation models of disease transmission, and then focus on research in spatial epidemiology that is spatially explicit, such as the creation of risk maps for particular geographical areas. Although the spatial dynamics of infectious diseases are the subject of intensive study, the impacts of landscape structure on epidemiological processes have so far been neglected. The few studies that demonstrate how landscape composition (types of elements) and configuration (spatial positions of those elements) influence disease risk or incidence suggest that a true integration of landscape ecology with epidemiology will be fruitful.

Journal Article↗

Treated amblyopes remain deficient in spatial vision: a contrast sensitivity and external noise study.

To evaluate residual spatial vision deficits in treated amblyopia, we recruited five clinically treated amblyopes (mean age=10.6 years). Contrast sensitivity functions (CSF) in both the previously amblyopic eyes (pAE; visual acuity=0.944+/-0.019 MAR) and fellow eyes (pFE; visual acuity=0.936+/-0.021 MAR) were measured using a standard psychophysical procedure for all the subjects. The results indicated that the treated amblyopes remained deficient in spatial vision, especially at high spatial frequencies, although their Snellen visual acuity had become normal in the pAEs. To identify the mechanisms underlying spatial vision deficits of treated amblyopes, threshold vs external noise contrast (TvC) functions--the signal contrast necessary for the subject to maintain a threshold performance level in varying amounts of external noise ("TV snow")--were measured in both eyes of four of the subjects in a sine-wave grating detection task at several spatial frequencies. Two mechanisms of amblyopia were identified: increased internal noise at low to medium spatial frequencies, and both increased internal noise and increased impact of external noise at high spatial frequencies. We suggest that, in addition to visual acuity, other tests of spatial vision (e.g., CSF, TvC) should be used to assess treatment outcomes of amblyopia therapies. Training in intermediate and high spatial frequencies may be necessary to fully recover spatial vision in amblyopia in addition to the occlusion therapy.

Adolescent↗

Spatial working memory deficits and clinical symptoms in schizophrenia: a 4-month follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: Our goal was to examine spatial working memory function in relation to clinical symptoms of schizophrenia over a period of 4 months. METHODS: We assessed spatial working memory, spatial detection and clinical symptoms in 34 acutely psychotic schizophrenia patients within the first 2 weeks of hospitalization, and 4 months later. Spatial working memory was assessed by a delayed response task. A spatial control task was included to rule out simple sensorimotor deficits. Positive and negative symptoms were assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Thirty-nine matched normal control subjects were also examined on the same tasks over the same period. RESULTS: Patients showed deficits in working memory, but they performed well on the spatial control task. Both positive and negative symptoms improved at the 4-month follow up. Spatial working memory also improved over time but there was still a significant deficit at the follow-up session. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that both symptoms and spatial working memory improved 4 months after the initial hospitalization but spatial working memory, hypothesized to be mediated by the dorsolateral prefrontal system, did not normalize. Thus, spatial working memory deficit may be a stable marker for schizophrenia.

Acute Disease↗

A neurological dissociation between preserved visual and impaired spatial processing in mental imagery.

Studies on primates have shown that visual and spatial perceptual analysis depends on two separate neural pathways, associated with the processing of "what" and "where" an object is (visual characteristics and spatial coordinates, respectively). Similar dichotomies have been proposed by cognitive psychologists (e.g., the contrast between visual and spatial processing in working memory) and by neuropsychologists (e.g., the distinction between topographic agnosia and amnesia). In this paper we report the case of a patient with a severe spatial disorientation whose perceptual processing of visual and spatial information was normal, but in imagery tasks she had a dissociation between preserved visual and impaired spatial processing. While her ability to represent objects visually was intact, she failed in any task requiring mental rotation, recall of spatial position or execution of spatially based imagery operations. The case clearly demonstrates that visual and spatial imagery are functionally independent processes which must rely on different underlying neural systems. This pattern of impairment also explains the associated topographical amnesia as an inability to integrate spatial information in a mental map.

Aged↗

Spatial frequency bandwidth used in the recognition of facial images.

The purpose of the study was to find out what spatial frequency information human observers use in the recognition of face images. Signal-to-noise ratio thresholds for the recognition of facial images were measured as a function of the centre spatial frequency of narrow-band additive spatial noise. The relative sensitivity of recognition to different spatial frequencies was derived from these results. The maximum sensitivity was found at 8-13 c/face width and the bandwidth was just under two octaves. Qualitatively similar results were obtained with stimuli in which Fourier phase was randomised within a narrow band of different centre spatial frequencies. This resulted in a considerable increase of energy threshold around 8 c/face width and less elsewhere. Further, contrast energy thresholds were measured as a function of the centre spatial frequency of band-pass filtered face images. As a function of object spatial frequency (c/face width), energy threshold first decreased and then increased. The lowest energy thresholds found around 10 c/face width were lower than the energy threshold for unfiltered images. This is what one would expect if face recognition is narrow-band, since band-pass filtered images of optimal centre spatial frequency do not contain unused contrast energy at low and high spatial frequencies. In conclusion, the results suggest that the recognition of facial images is tuned to a relatively narrow band (< 2 octaves) of mid object spatial frequencies.

Face↗

Differential learning strategies in spatial and nonspatial versions of the Morris water maze in the C57BL/6J inbred mouse strain.

We recently developed a new nonspatial version of the Morris water maze that requires the use of four visually distinct intra-maze patterns to efficiently locate a hidden platform. The nonspatial version was designed to match the spatial version on complexity of cue usage, and differs only on spatiality of cues, thereby allowing more meaningful comparisons between the two versions. Following a previous experiment that demonstrated nonspatial learning with the BXSB inbred mouse strain, C57 inbred mice were tested in this study. They received spatial and nonspatial training in a counter-balanced order so that Test Order and information transfer could be assessed. Subjects that received spatial training first had superior performance in both the spatial and the nonspatial tasks when compared to mice that received nonspatial training first. The mice that received spatial training first used extra-maze cues as a spatial strategy. However, during nonspatial testing they did not use the intra-maze cues to locate the platform; instead, the mice used an egocentric strategy of circling through the platform annulus. Subjects that received spatial testing first were superior on the nonspatial task to those subjects that received nonspatial training first. Moreover, subjects that received nonspatial testing first were unable to learn the spatial version. Overall, C57 mice can learn both the spatial and nonspatial versions of the Morris maze presented here; however, the nonspatial version is more difficult and is solved using an egocentric strategy.

Animals↗

Recovery of spatial performance in the Morris water maze following bilateral transection of the fimbria/fornix in rats.

The present study investigated whether spatial performance in the Morris water maze (MWM) recovers after bilateral transection of the fimbria/fornix (FF) in rats, whether such recovery results from restored or residual spatial cognitive capacity, and what contribution, if any, pre-operative training makes to such recovery. Following surgery, rats were administered extensive training to a constant submerged platform location with frequent probe tests to assess performance strategies. Following the attainment of asymptotic performance levels, rats were tested for acquisition of a second platform location. FF lesions were found to produce a severe impairment both in pre-operatively trained rats (a retention or retrieval deficit) and in naive rats (an acquisition deficit) as shown by the use of indirect routes to the platform on submerged platform trials and an absence of localized searching in the platform's area on probe trials. However, with further training, performance recovered in both groups, such that they eventually used direct escape routes to the submerged platform and showed highly localized searching in its area on probe trials. When tested for acquisition of a second platform location, a substantial deficit reappeared, but was again overcome with additional training. Pre-operative training was found to attenuate the initial post-operative deficit and speed recovery of performance but did not affect asymptotic performance levels nor acquisition of the second platform location. These data show that, though spatial cognition as assessed in the MWM is impaired by FF lesions, spatial performance eventually recovers. Moreover, pre-operative training, though of some initial post-operative benefit, is not essential for this recovery. The deficit shown in acquisition of the second platform location argues against recovery of spatial cognition and suggests that the basis of recovered performance is residual spatial cognitive capacity. Several limitations of this residual capacity are apparent: (i) rate of acquisition of spatial information is reduced; (ii) utilization of spatial information stored pre-operatively is restricted; and (iii) translation of spatial information into navigational behaviour is less efficient. The neural bases of this residual system are speculated to include spared intra-hippocampal storage mechanisms and/or mechanisms involved in extra-hippocampal long-term memory consolidation while the neural bases of the FF's contribution to spatial information storage in the intact brain are speculated to involve theta synchronization of hippocampal activity and the induction and expression of hippocampal long-term potentiation.

Animals↗

Age and experience-dependent representational reorganization during spatial learning.

Previously, we found that aged rats showed a significant enhancement of hippocampal CA1 place cell spatial specificity, as well as a reduction of hilar place cell spatial specificity, during asymptote performance of a spatial memory task. Because such an age effect was not observed when animals performed a nonspatial task, the present study tested the hypothesis that the different patterns of spatial selectivity observed in memory and nonmemory tests reflected a redistribution of spatial representations that occurred in response to changing task demands. In the present experiment, after animals became familiar with the test environment and motor demands of performance on a radial maze, CA1 and hilar place cells were recorded as they learned a spatial memory task. CA1 place cells recorded from unimpaired old, but not impaired old or young, animals became more spatially selective as animals learned the task. Hilar spatial selectivity for both age groups was not significantly related to choice accuracy. These data support the hypothesis that at least a subpopulation of aged rats may benefit from reorganization of spatial representations in such a way that the normal age-related spatial learning deficit is attenuated.

Aging↗

A spatial analysis of county-level variation in hospitalization rates for low back problems in North Carolina.

Hospitalization rates for low back problems vary widely. In previous non-spatial analyses, population-level socioeconomic and health resource characteristics have explained little of the variation in rates. This study examines geographic variation in hospitalization rates for low back problems while controlling for spatial dependence in the data. County-level surgical and medical hospitalization rates were calculated using North Carolina hospital (USA) discharge data from 1990-92. Non-spatial and spatial regression models were estimated using socioeconomic and health resource predictors. Both surgical and medical rates varied significantly among the 100 counties. Non-spatial models explained 62% of variation in log-transformed surgical rates and 66% of variation in log-transformed medical rates; however, residuals showed significant spatial dependence. Spatial lag models were therefore applied. Using simple contiguity spatial weights, surgery rates increased with higher percent urban population, primary care physician density, and discharge rate for other causes, and decreased with higher percent college graduates, percent disabled, occupied hospital bed density, and unoccupied hospital bed density. There was a nonlinear relationship between surgery rates and percent employed in heavy lifting/transportation industries. Medical rates increased with higher other-cause discharge rate and with MRI/CT scanner availability, and decreased with higher percent urban population, percent nonwhite population, percent in heavy lifting/transportation industries, and unoccupied hospital bed density. The results show that population-level socioeconomic and health resource characteristics are important determinants of variation in low back hospitalization rates. Independent of these variables, a separate spatial process produces geographic clustering of high-rate counties. Spatial effects are important and should be considered in small area analyses.

Catchment Area, Health↗

Spatial aspects of ventricular repolarization in postinfarction patients.

QT dispersion has been proposed to reflect the heterogeneity of ventricular repolarization, but a poor reproducibility limits its clinical usefulness. Spatial vectorcardiographic descriptors constitute a novel approach to quantify ventricular repolarization. To test the ability of vectorcardiographic descriptors to discriminate among different subsets of postinfarction patients, 50 consecutively recruited patients with acute MI, 50 patients with history of an old (> 6 months) MI, and 50 healthy controls were evaluated. The maximum and minimum QT and JT intervals and QT and JT dispersion were manually measured from a digitally recorded 12-lead ECG. X, Y, and Z leads were reconstructed from the 12-lead ECG. The amplitude of the maximum spatial T vector (spatial T amplitude), the angle between the maximum spatial QRS and T vectors (spatial QRS-T angle), and the frontal plane QRS-T angle were automatically calculated. The spatial T amplitude and the spatial QRS-T angle did not differ between patients with a recent and those with an old MI (P = 1). QT dispersion was significantly lower in patients with an old MI than in patients with a recent one (P = 0.002). The spatial repolarization descriptors showed better short-term reproducibility than the dispersion indices. In conclusion, the spatial T amplitude and the spatial QRS-T angle are accurate measures of ventricular repolarization that do not differ between patients with recent and those with old MI. The different QT dispersion values observed in this study between the two post-MI groups should be considered cautiously because of the low accuracy of the manual measurements.

Case-Control Studies↗

Suprathreshold stereo-depth matches as a function of contrast and spatial frequency.

Thresholds for stereoscopic-depth perception increase with decreasing spatial frequency below 2.5 cycles deg-1. Despite this variation of stereo threshold, suprathreshold stereoscopic-depth perception is independent of spatial frequency down to 0.5 cycle deg-1. Below this frequency the perceived depth of crossed disparities is less than that stimulated by higher spatial frequencies which subtend the same disparities. We have investigated the effects of contrast fading upon this breakdown of stereo-depth invariance at low spatial frequencies. Suprathreshold stereopsis was investigated with spatially filtered vertical bars (difference of Gaussian luminance distribution, or DOG functions) tuned narrowly over a broad range of spatial frequencies (0.15-9.6 cycles deg-1). Disparity subtended by variable width DOGs whose physical contrast ranged from 10-100% was adjusted to match the perceived depth of a standard suprathreshold disparity (5 min visual angle) subtended by a thin black line. Greater amounts of crossed disparity were required to match broad than narrow DOGs to the apparent depth of the standard black line. The matched disparity was greater at low than at high contrast levels. When perceived contrast of all the DOGs was matched to standard contrasts ranging from 5-72%, disparity for depth matches became similar for narrow and broad DOGs. 200 ms pulsed presentations of DOGs with equal perceived contrast further reduced the disparity of low-contrast broad DOGs needed to match the standard depth. A perceived-depth bias in the uncrossed direction at low spatial frequencies was noted in these experiments. This was most pronounced for low-contrast low-spatial-frequency targets, which actually needed crossed disparities to make a depth match to an uncrossed standard. This bias was investigated further by making depth matches to a zero-disparity standard (ie the apparent fronto-parallel plane). Broad DOGs, which are composed of low spatial frequencies, were perceived behind the fixation plane when they actually subtended zero disparity. The magnitude of this low-frequency depth bias increased as contrast was reduced. The distal depth bias was also perceived monocularly, however, it was always greater when viewed binocularly. This investigation indicates that contrast fading of low-spatial-frequency stimuli changes their perceived depth and enhances a depth bias in the uncrossed direction. The depth bias has both a monocular and a binocular component.

Depth Perception↗

Influence of operator orientation on relative organizational mapping and spatial compatibility.

Following up on a study by Worringham and Beringer (1989) that examined the influence of operator orientation on visual-motor performance, Experiment 1 employed a choice reaction time paradigm in which participants had to make rapid, discrete movements with a lever in response to a discrete stimulus. In Experiment 2, participants had to synchronize rhythmic movements with an oscillating visual display. Operator orientation with respect to stimulus display and response array locations was varied to examine the influence of global spatial relations. Display orientation was varied to examine the influence of spatial configuration. Mapping rules were varied to examine the effects of spatial mapping. In Experiment 1, the spatial mapping that yielded faster responses was dependent upon the stimulus display-response array configuration and the global relation. Under a parallel configuration, participants appeared to code the spatial aspects of the stimulus display and response in a manner that was unaffected by the global spatial relation. Under an orthogonal configuration, spatial mapping effects were dependent upon the global relation. In Experiment 2, the global spatial relation did not have an impact on the uniformity of co-ordination under different configuration or mapping conditions. Spatial configuration influenced whether or not differences between spatial mapping rules emerged. Together, the results speak to the relative nature of stimulus-response coding that underlie compatibility phenomena. In addition, the results have potential importance for the design of human-machine systems that allow flexibility in operator orientation.

Canada↗

Interference with rehearsal in spatial working memory in the absence of eye movements.

We have previously argued that rehearsal in spatial working memory is interfered with by spatial attention shifts rather than simply by movements to locations in space (Smyth & Scholey, 1994). It is possible, however, that the stimuli intended to induce attention shifts in our experiments also induced eye movements and interfered either with an overt eye movement rehearsal strategy or with a covert one. In the first experiment reported here, subjects fixated while they maintained a sequence of spatial items in memory before recalling them in order. Fixation did not affect recall, but auditory spatial stimuli presented during the interval did decrease performance, and it was further decreased if the stimuli were categorized as corning from the right or the left. A second experiment investigated the effects of auditory spatial stimuli to which no response was ever required and found that these did not interfere with performance, indicating that it is the spatial salience of targets that leads to interference. This interference from spatial input in the absence of any overt movement of the eyes or limbs is interpreted in terms of shifts of spatial attention or spatial monitoring, which Morris (1989) has suggested affects spatial encoding and which our findings suggest also affects reactivation in rehearsal.

Adult↗