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PubMed2006

Contextual learning: a reflective learning intervention for nursing education.

Nursing educators need to continue to explore ways that new pedagogies such as narrative pedagogy and reflective practice inform and extend students' thinking in classroom and clinical situations. The goal of instruction becomes creating an opportunity for learning that integrates content knowledge with knowledge of the context. Educational methodologies that incorporate the use of context in a reflective, dialogical approach over time hold much promise in developing a dynamic process of thinking in practice. Contextual learning is a reflective learning intervention that offers new possibilities for nurse educators to prepare nurses to think critically in practice. In this expository paper the design and instructional methodology of contextual learning is discussed, beginning with a brief overview of the nature of critical thinking and the use of narrative as major underpinnings in the development of this intervention. Examples of how the intervention was implemented with novice nurses in practice is provided. Finally, reflections on how the intervention could be refined for nursing students is offered.

Communication↗
PubMed1997

Using accreditation of prior learning and accreditation of prior experiential learning for entry on to the BSc in Medical Illustration.

The Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) and Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL) scheme described in this paper has been prepared following discussions between the Institute of Medical Illustrators (IMI) and Glasgow Caledonian University (GCU), departments of Learning and Educational Development and Biological Sciences. The scheme gives specific academic credit under the Scottish Credit Accumulation and Transfer (SCOTCAT) scheme for learning gained from experience, allowing access onto the Bachelor of Science Degree (BSc) in Medical Illustration to potential students who do not have the required Higher National Diploma (HND) or equivalent entry qualification. The need, rationale and structure of the scheme are described.

Accreditation↗
PubMed1984

Ontogenesis of learning: II. Variation in the rat's reflexive and learned responses to acoustic stimulation.

The ontogenesis of the rat's reflexive and simple learned reactions to acoustic stimulation was investigated in five experiments. The pattern of results suggests that (a) reflexive reactions to tonal stimulation emerge earlier in ontogenesis than the capacity to learn about these stimuli, and (b) the age at which simple Pavlovian conditioning is first observed depends on the nature of the acoustic conditioned stimulus (CS). Specifically, these data suggest that pups are not capable of simple Pavlovian conditioning to a 2000-Hz tone (CS) paired with an oral infusion of sucrose (US) until they are 14-15 days old. The same acoustic stimulus will, however, evoke reflexive reactions (startle inspiration) in pups as young as 10-12 days old. Additionally, when a different auditory stimulus (an intermittent train of clicks) serves as the CS, there is evidence of conditioning in pups only 12-13 days old. It is suggested that these age-related dissociations in the emergence of reflexive and simple learned responses to sound reflect a caudal-to-rostral maturational sequence of the components of the ascending auditory system.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1995

Parkinson's disease affects automatic and spares intentional verbal learning. A stochastic approach to explicit learning processes.

We studied word list and paired associates learning in patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease and normal controls by means of a two-stage stochastic model, which allows independent measurements of encoding, storage and retrieval abilities. We preliminarily ascertained that the model components were both sufficient and necessary to account for the overall performance of the subjects, and then compared the learning abilities between the two groups. Parkinson's disease patients were selectively impaired in identifying well-known engrams, for which learning is superfluous, and in automatic retrieval, namely in abilities that do not need attentional effort. By contrast, they were unimpaired in encoding and intentional retrieval, which require a purposeful effort. The automatic-voluntary dissociation of Parkinson's disease patients' motor behaviour is, therefore, paralleled by some features of their memory performance.

Aged↗
PubMed1999

Neuropsychological, learning and psychosocial profile of primary school aged children with the velo-cardio-facial syndrome (22q11 deletion): evidence for a nonverbal learning disability?

In this exploratory study, the neuropsychological and learning profile of nine primary school age children with velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS) was studied by systematic neuropsychological testing. In five out of nine children, the following profile was found: a VIQ-PIQ discrepancy (in favor of the VIQ), significantly better scores (.05 level) for reading (decoding) and spelling compared to arithmetic, deficient tactile-perceptual skills (difficulties mainly on the left side of the body), weak but not deficient visual-perceptual abilities, deficient visual-spatial skills, extremely poor psychomotor skills (gross motor skills more deficient than fine motor skills), problems with processing of new and complex material, poor visual attention, good auditory memory and relatively good language skills. These findings correspond to the pattern of neuropsychological assets and deficits that has been described for the syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD) (Rourke, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1995). The psychosocial profile of all nine children with VCFS also correspond to that of children with NLD. Further studies on the relationship between cognitive function, behavior, psychiatric disorder and abnormalities in brain anatomy in young people with VCFS will be needed. In clinical practice, it is worthwhile exploring in greater depth the neuropsychological functions of children with VCFS to rule out NLD, since they may benefit from specific remediation following the learning principles of the NLD-treatment.

Attention↗
PubMed1988

Referential communication abilities of learning-disabled, language-learning-disabled, and normal school-age children.

Past research in referential communication has indicated normally developing children show developmental progression in ability to communicate a specific referent to a listener. In one paradigm subjects were given lists of word-pairs in which one member of each pair was designated as the referent. It was shown that communicating about referents found in word-pairs associated in some way was more difficult than communicating about referents in dissimilar word-pairs. The present study extended this methodology to learning-disabled children. Learning-disabled, language-learning-disabled, and normally achieving children were asked to communicate about 30 pictured referents on three different tasks. On Tasks 1 and 2 each subject was asked to give a clue for the referent that would distinguish it from the other picture. Stimuli for Task 1 were 30 pairs of pictures that were related in some way and the stimuli for Task 2 were 30 pairs of unrelated pictures. Task 3 required the subjects to evaluate the adequacy of the examiner's clues for Task 1 stimuli. The disabled subjects were matched to the normally achieving subjects on the basis of receptive vocabulary age. Few differences were noted among the groups' performances on these referential communication tasks. Implications include the importance of vocabulary and concept development to referential communication.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Learning disabilities and learned helplessness: a heuristic approach.

This study investigated whether students with learning disabilities exhibited learned helpless behavior at a greater rate than their normal achieving peers when confronted with reading failure. Forty-five third grade students from a suburban elementary schools were participants in the study. Thirty of the subjects were classified as having a learning disability (LD) and the remaining 15 subjects were from regular education (RE) classrooms. Fifteen of the students with LD were placed in the treatment group and the remaining fifteen were placed in the control group. All the regular education students were placed in the treatment group. After randomly assigning the students with LD into either a treatment (stressed) group or a control (nonstressed) group, the stressed students were administered a reading instrument in order to measure how they dealt with failure. A one-way ANCOVA was conducted to determine whether significant differences existed between the groups based on their posttest scores. The results indicate that stressed students with LD have a significantly more difficult time recovering from stress than their regular education peers.

Child↗
PubMed1980

Differential performance of learning disabled and non-learning disabled children on the McCarthy scales, WISC-R, and WRAT.

Individually administered the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, WISC-R, and WRAT to 30 learning disabled and 30 non-learning disabled second-grade students. The McCarthy General Cognitive Index and the WISC-R Full Scale IQ scores were compared for both groups. In addition, correlations between the General Cognitive Index, WISC-R IQ, and mean WRAT achievement were reported. There was marginal support for previous studies that suggested that the McCarthy Scales are more consistent with the academic functioning of learning disable students. Implications and directions for future research were discussed.

Child↗
PubMed1984

Ontogenesis of learning: III. Variation in the rat's differential reflexive and learned responses to sound frequencies.

The ontogenesis of the rat's differential response to variation in sound frequency was investigated. Two behavioral procedures were employed: (a) a differential Pavlovian conditioning procedure that provided a means of inferring the pup's capacity to learn to respond differentially on the basis of sound frequency (e.g., 2000 Hz vs 900 Hz), and (b) a habituation-generalization task that indexed the capacity to discriminate different sound frequencies from the pup's reflexive behavior. Pups less than 17 days old failed to learn to respond differentially to a 2000-Hz vs 900-Hz tone (Experiment I, IIA, IIB, and III). In contrast, pups only 14 days old discriminated tones that differed by as little as 200 Hz when the reflex-habituation-generalization procedure was employed (Experiment IV). This suggests that the reflexive and learned behaviors, potentially controlled by sound frequency, are dissociated during ontogenesis, the former emerging prior to the latter. These data were interpreted within a neurobiological framework that related ontogenetic changes in behavioral capacity to a caudal-to-rostral maturational sequence in the ascending auditory system of the components that contribute to these capacities.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1990

Analysis of associative learning in the terrestrial mollusc Limax maximus. II. Appetitive learning.

The odor and taste processing systems of the terrestrial mollusc Limax maximus have been shown capable of a number of complex computations. Most of the complex higher-order features of Limax learning have been demonstrated using differential aversive conditioning. The present experiments probe the appetitive learning ability of Limax. In the first experiment a differential appetitive classical conditioning procedure was used. An aversive CS+ odor was paired with an attractive taste while a CS- odor was explicitly unpaired with the attractive taste. This appetitive conditioning procedure dramatically increased the preference for the CS+ odor. Further experiments determined the time course of acquisition, the effect of an extinction procedure and long-term retention of the appetitive conditioning. Now that Limax has been shown capable of appetitive conditioning, the neural network simulation of Limax learning, called LIMAX, can be examined for its ability to display appetitive conditioning.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Synaptic plasticity and learning. II: Do different kinds of plasticity underlie different kinds of learning?

This paper discusses certain issues connected with the question of whether synaptic plasticity is involved in information storage by the brain. We begin by contrasting two well documented types of synaptic plasticity--activity-dependent modulation of presynaptic facilitation ("Kandel synapses") and NMDA receptor triggered alterations in excitatory amino acid transmission ("Hebb synapses"). We then propose that, embedded-into appropriate circuitry, these different forms of plasticity might underlie different kinds of learning. In partial support of this idea, we show that, in freely moving rats, intrahippocampal microinfusion of the NMDA-receptor antagonist D,L-AP5 causes a dose-dependent impairment of a type of spatial learning known to be sensitive to disruption by hippocampal lesions (water-maze place-navigation). In a second experiment, the same drug infusion protocol is shown to cause a blockade of hippocampal long-term potentiation in vivo across a comparable dose range. Finally, third, autoradiographic experiments indicate that diffusion of the drug was largely restricted to the hippocampus. Together, these results (1) suggest that blockade of hippocampal NMDA receptors, under conditions which leave baseline synaptic transmission relatively unaffected, blocks a type of learning with which the vertebrate hippocampus has been implicated on the basis of neuropsychological work; and (2) supports Abrams and Kandel's Trends Neurosci. 11 (1988) recent proposal that there may be several logically distinct forms of synaptic plasticity.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Forebrain serotonin and avoidance learning: behavioural and biochemical studies on the acute effect of p-chloroamphetamine on one-way active avoidance learning in the male rat.

The acute effects of p-chloroamphetamine (PCA) on one-way active avoidance learning and on central monoamine concentrations were examined in the male rat. The 5-HT specificity of the acute behavioural effect of PCA was examined in several experiments. PCA (0.08-5 mg/kg IP) injected 30-60 min before testing produced a dose-related impairment of both avoidance acquisition and retention. Pretreatment with the selective serotonin (5-HT) uptake inhibitors fluoxetine and zimelidine, but not the noradrenaline (NA) uptake inhibitor desipramine, resulted in a blockade of the avoidance deficit. Degeneration of brain 5-HT neurons by a high neurotoxic dose of PCA (2 x 10 mg/kg IP) 7 days prior to the administration of PCA also blocked the avoidance deficit. There was also a complete blockade of the PCA-induced avoidance deficit by pretreatment with metergoline, a central 5-HT receptor blocking agent. A 2.,5 mg/kg dose of PCA examined 60 min after injection produced regional changes in the 5-HT-levels preferentially in the forebrain region with significant reductions in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and striatum while marginal effects were observed in the hypothalamus, midbrain and spinal cord. PCA failed to reduce dopamine and noradrenaline concentrations in the time- and dose-range of the avoidance deficit. Thus, the avoidance learning impairment appears to be specifically related to the acute release of endogenous 5-HT from presynaptic nerve endings possibly in the forebrain resulting in stimulation of postsynaptic 5-HT receptors. These findings indicate that 5-HT neurons in the forebrain play a role in active avoidance learning possibly by an involvement in memorial and/or retrieval processes.

Amphetamines↗
PubMed1989

Learning from each other: peer teaching and learning in student nurse training.

From whom do student nurses learn practical skills? According to the small group of students questioned by the author they learn as much from fellow students as from staff nurses, and clinical teachers have little part in this type of learning. The author discusses this issue and asks whether teachers should be more involved in clinical practice.

Education, Nursing↗
PubMed2006

Effects of hunger state on flavour pleasantness conditioning at home: flavour-nutrient learning vs. flavour-flavour learning.

UNLABELLED: This study examined acquired liking of flavour preferences through flavour-flavour and flavour-nutrient learning under hungry or sated conditions in a naturalistic setting. Each participant consumed one of three versions of a test drink at home either before lunch or after lunch: minimally sweetened ( CONTROL: 3% sucrose, 40 kcal), artificially sweetened (3% sucrose 40 kcal plus artificial sweeteners ASPARTAME) and sucrose-sweetened (SUCROSE: 9.9% sugar, 132 kcal). The test drink was an uncarbonated peach-flavoured iced tea served in visually identical drink cans (330 ml). Participants preselected as "sweet likers" evaluated the minimally sweetened flavoured drink (conditioned stimulus, CS) in the same state (hungry or sated) in which they consumed the test drink at home. Overall, liking for the CS flavour increased in participants who consumed the SUCROSE drink, however, this increase in liking was significantly larger when tested and trained hungry than sated, consistent with a flavour-nutrient model. Overall increases in pleasantness for the CS flavour in participants who consumed the SUCROSE drink when sated or the ASPARTAME drink independent of hunger state, suggest that flavour-flavour learning also occurred. These results are discussed in light of current learning models of flavour preference.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Learning your way around town: how virtual taxicab drivers learn to use both layout and landmark information.

By having subjects drive a virtual taxicab through a computer-rendered town, we examined how landmark and layout information interact during spatial navigation. Subject-drivers searched for passengers, and then attempted to take the most efficient route to the requested destinations (one of several target stores). Experiment 1 demonstrated that subjects rapidly learn to find direct paths from random pickup locations to target stores. Experiment 2 varied the degree to which landmark and layout cues were preserved across two successively learned towns. When spatial layout was preserved, transfer was low if only target stores were altered, and high if both target stores and surrounding buildings were altered, even though in the latter case all local views were changed. This suggests that subjects can rapidly acquire a survey representation based on the spatial layout of the town and independent of local views, but that subjects will rely on local views when present, and are harmed when associations between previously learned landmarks are disrupted. We propose that spatial navigation reflects a hierarchical system in which either layout or landmark information is sufficient for orienting and wayfinding; however, when these types of cues conflict, landmarks are preferentially used.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Rapid response learning in amnesia: delineating associative learning components in repetition priming.

Functional brain imaging studies of priming assume that the behavioral facilitation and activity reductions resulting from multiple repetitions reflect the continued tuning of processes engaged during the initial processing of items. Utilizing an object priming paradigm in which participants were asked to make relative size judgments about visually presented common objects, we tested an alternate hypothesis that states that with multiple repetitions participants come to rely on a more efficient response learning mechanism. In experiment 1, the decision cue was inverted such that previous judgments made either once or three times were rendered invalid. Decision inversion resulted in a reduction of all priming, but most critically, led to a reduction of multiple-repetition priming to the level of single-repetition priming. In experiment 2, patients with amnesia failed to show a priming advantage for multiple repetitions, indicating that response learning is dependent on the medial temporal lobes. Taken together, these results suggest that a different process increasingly mediates priming behavior as repetitions increase. With repeated exposure, behavioral facilitation rapidly comes to reflect a more efficient response learning mechanism rather than facilitated access to object knowledge.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Differential influences of corticotropin-releasing factor on memory retention of aversive learning and appetitive learning in rats.

The effects of intraamygdala injections of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) on memory retention of aversive and appetitive learnings were examined in the present study. Other than confirming the results of a previous study that a moderate dose of CRF (0.1 microgram) injected into the amygdala facilitated retention performance of an inhibitory avoidance task (electric shock punishment) 24 h after training, we have further found that this effect lasted for a week. However, CRF produced a differential dose-response effect upon memory of an appetitive learning paradigm (sexual reinforcement). CRF at 0.01 microgram enhanced retention at both 24-h and 1-week intervals, while CRF at 0.1 microgram impaired retention in the same task at 1 week only. These results confirm that the amygdala is important in memory processing and suggest that the mechanisms involved in the action of CRF on memory retention of aversive and appetitive learnings are different. The possible differences are also discussed.

Amygdala↗