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At least 433 records · Page 24Linked to original sources
PubMed2004

[Diagnostic value of 99mTc-MIBI brain SPECT for brain glioma].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the value of (99m)Tc-MIBI brain single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) in diagnosis of glioma. METHODS: Fifty-nine patients with glioma, 6 with brain abscess and 9 healthy controls underwent (99m)Tc-MIBI brain SPECT, and the diagnostic indices such as the sensitivity, specificity and accuracy were calculated. The tumor to non-tumor (T/NT) ratios were calculated according to the region of interest (ROI) and compared between the glioma group, healthy control group and brain abscess group by t test. RESULTS: Among the 59 cases of glioma, 51 showed positive results in (99m)Tc-MIBI SPECT, along with one of the healthy controls and 4 of brain abscess patients. The sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the diagnosis were 86.4%, 66.7% and 82.4%, respectively. The T/NT ratio of brain glioma group was 2.6+/-1.2, significantly higher than that of normal group (t=3.6199, P<0.001) and brain abscess group (t=2.1327, P<0.05). CONCLUSION: (99m)Tc-MIBI brain SPECT is sensitive for diagnosis of brain glioma, and can distinguish malignant from benign lesions effectively.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

[The blood-brain barrier: implications for chemotherapy in brain tumors].

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is located between the blood and the extracellular space of the brain. This barrier is formed by the brain capillaries whose endothelial cells have tight intercellular junctions. Transcellular passage of drugs from the bloodstream to the brain occurs selectively, in a manner dependent on the ability of the molecules to penetrale through cell membranes. The blood-brain barrier is one of the main factors of chemotherapy failure in central nervous system tumors. Penetration of a molecule from the bloodstream to the brain is dependent on the compound's liposolubility, expressed by the octanol-water separation coefficient. Following intravenous administration, most drugs fail to achieve adequate levels in the central nervous system for a sufficiently long period of time. A variety of techniques have been used in an attempt to increase CNS penetration of drugs normally shut out by the blood-brain barrier: high-dose chemotherapy, intrathecal injections, intraarterial injections, induction of hyperosmolarity to make the blood-brain barrier permeable. The best results are obtained using liposoluble drugs with optimal octanol-water separation coefficients, such as fotemustine. This compound given as single drug therapy in brain metastases from malignant melanomas has yielded response rates of up to 28.2%.

Antineoplastic Agents↗
PubMed1990

Serpin inhibitors of urokinase and thrombin in normal rat brain and the 9L brain tumor: evidence for elevated expression of protease nexin I-like inhibitor and a novel sodium dodecyl sulfate-activated tumor antithrombin.

Increasing attention is being paid to alterations of the hemostatic balance in tumors, in general, and brain tumors, in particular. Apparently divergent results, showing excess fibrinolysis (i.e., increased plasminogen activator activity) or its inhibition (i.e., increased inhibitor activity), have been reported. The 9L rat brain tumor is a gliosarcoma and a model used to study treatment paradigms for human gliomas. To study the roles of fibrin and fibrinolysis in this brain tumor model, we used these features to investigate the nature of the plasminogen activator (PA) and thrombin inhibitors in normal rat brain and in the 9L rat brain tumor, growing both in vitro and in vivo in rat brain. The results indicate that cells cultured from the tumor in vitro express PA inhibitory activity which is both of the protease nexin I and PA inhibitor 1 types. However, the serpin PA inhibitory activity in extracts of both the normal brain and tumor is of the protease nexin I/PA inhibitor 3 type. This activity is higher in the tumor than in the surrounding "normal" tissue. In addition, we present evidence for a novel thrombin inhibitor which (a) is present only in the tumor growing in rat brain and undetectable either in the normal brain tissue or in vitro, (b) is in a latent, but sodium dodecyl sulfate-activatable, state, and (c) does not bind urokinase. In current studies, investigators are exploring the roles of these molecules and the target serine proteases they inhibit in the pathogenesis of gliomas.

Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor↗
PubMed1982

Auditory nerve-brain stem responses (ABR) in children with developmental brain disorders and in high risk neonates.

Auditory nerve-brain stem evoked responses (ABR) have been used for many years to evaluate auditory and neurological disorders. This study is devoted to the demonstration that ABRs can also contribute to the assessment of children with developmental brain disorders, e.g. psycho-motor retardation, minimal brain dysfunction, cerebral palsy and autism. The ABR in many of these children was abnormal, providing evidence for the presence of brain damage in these children which is probably responsible for the disorder they display. Since many of these children suffered from some congenital, perinatal or neonatal insult, ABR recording was also conducted in high risk neonates and young infants. Many of these neonates and infants had abnormal ABRs and, in several, there was improvement of the ABR upon repeated testing. These findings of abnormal ABRs in children with developmental brain disorders who suffered a perinatal insult and abnormal ABRs in neonates who suffered such an insult lead to the following hypothesis: a congenital-perinatal-neonatal insult can cause, at the time of its occurrence, some form of brain damage which may be demonstrated by abnormal ABRs. The same underlying brain damage may also cause developmental brain disorders which become apparent when he is older. Therefore ABR recording during the neonatal period may contribute to the early detection of brain dysfunction in at-risk neonates and may predict the later appearance of neurological, behavioural and cognitive dysfunctions. A longitudinal experimental protocol for the testing and evaluation of this hypothesis is presented.

Brain Diseases↗
PubMed1980

[Brain dopamine and brain disorders - and what we have learned from these studies (author's transl)].

1. Two examples are given to illustrate the role of dopamine in brain disorders: a) In Parkinson's disease there is a marked deficiency of dopamine in several subcortical brain regions, particularly the striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) and substantia nigra. This extensive dopaminergic denervation of the basal ganglia results in compensatory pre- and postsynaptic changes, i.e. increase in neuronal activity in the remaining dopamine neurons, and increase in the number of the postsynaptic dopamine receptor sites. These changes are of great functional significance, inter alia for the therapeutic efficacy of L-dopa as an antiparkinson medication. - b) Recently, increased number of dopamine receptors has been measured in the striatum and nucleus accumbens of patents dying with schizophrenic symptomatology. This observation, taken together with the fact that all antipsychotically effective neuroleptics are potent blockers of brain dopamine receptors, has lead to the hypothesis that dopaminergic brain mechanisms are involved in the pathophysiology of the schizophrenic disorder(s). 2. The possible involvement of brain dopamine receptors in brain disorders raises the more basic question as to the physiological role of the diverse dopamine (and other monoamine) receptors in brain function. Since in the brain the majority of the monoamine-containing nerve terminals are devoid of synaptic contacts, a nonsynaptic role for dopamine (and other brain amines) is envisaged, e.g. modulation of neuronal impulse activity characterized by long lasting changes in reactivity of the neuronal elements and circuits.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Dihydrofolate reductase in primary brain tumors, cell cultures of central nervous system origin, and normal brain during fetal and neonatal growth.

Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) was measured during the development in rats of brain tumors induced following inoculation with avian sarcoma virus. Increasing activity of this enzyme in brain was correlated with the course of primary brain tumor growth. The specific activities of DHFR in primary human brain tumor tissues were comparable to those found in avian sarcoma virus-induced brain tumors in rats. Specific activities of DHFR in cell cultures derived from human and rat primary intracranial gliomas and sarcomas were up to 6 times those found in adult rat liver. The presence of DHFR in neoplasms of central nervous system origin is relevant to the development of folate antagonists which, unlike methotrexate, can readily cross the blood-brain barrier. In normal developing rat brain, DHFR specific activity was high in embryos at 19 days of gestation and declined thereafter, until at 20 days after birth the activity was very low. The methotrexate titration assay was used to measure enzyme levels in the brains of fetal and newborn rats, and good correlation with the spectrophotometric assay was observed. The pattern was different in liver, showing maximum activity 11 days after birth and retaining high activity in adult liver. Both the cofactor requirement and the sensitivity to methotrexate indicate that the enzyme in the brain is DHFR.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

[Fatal brain stem infarction due to rupture of a brain abscess: a case report].

We report a case of a brain abscess which initially presented with subcortical hematoma and ultimately resulted in fatal brain stem infarction due to its rupture into the subarachnoid space. A 50-year-old male was admitted to a nearby hospital with complaints of headache, fever, and sensory aphasia. He had ventricular septal defect found 15 years previously, sinusitis, and liver cirrhosis. Computerized tomographic (CT) scan revealed a left temporal subcortical hematoma. Gadolinium-DTPA enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed faint ring-like enhancement at the margin of the lesion. The left internal carotid angiogram demonstrated the vascular blush and early venous filling of the vein of Labbé. Administration of antibiotics and predonine resulted in resolution of fever within five days. MRI obtained 17 days after the onset showed typical ring-like enhancement. The mass was just adjacent to the lateral ventricle. The patient was transferred to our hospital for further examination and treatment 21 days after the onset. Fever had recurred 2 days before admission to our hospital. One day after admission, the patient began to vomit. About 15 hours following this symptom, he suddenly became comatose and tetraplegic. CT scan demonstrated a rupture of the abscess. Emergent drainage from the lateral ventricle and the abscess cavity was undertaken. Follow-up CT scan revealed multiple infarctions involving the upper brain stem and the bilateral thalamus. He died on the 29th day after the onset. The mechanisms of hemorrhage with a brain abscess and cerebral infarction after rupture of brain abscess are discussed. Hemorrhage with brain abscess is extremely rare. However, brain abscess should be considered as a possible etiology of an atypical hematoma. To avoid fatal rupture of the brain abscess, immediate treatment is essential. Once the rupture of the brain abscess occurs, its contents might cause vasospasm severe enough to cause cerebral infarction.

Brain Abscess↗
PubMed1994

Early changes of blood-brain barrier and superoxide scavenging activity in rat cryogenic brain injury.

Cryogenic brain injury results in blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption which may be mediated in part by oxygen free radicals. In this study, sequential changes of BBB and endogenous superoxide scavenging activity were investigated in brains subjected to cryogenic injury. 92 male Wistar rats were sacrificed at 15, 30 minutes, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 24 and 48 hours after the lesion. The extent of BBB disruption was determined by quantitative assessment of Evans blue (EB) uptake based on extraction from tissue using dimethylformamide. Determination of endogenous superoxide scavenging activity in the injured brain was performed by electron spin resonance spectrometry using a spin trapping agent. Superoxide scavenging activity was significantly decreased within one hour after the injury relative to normal rat brain (p < 0.05, student's t test) persisting for at least 6 hours. The EB content in the lesioned hemisphere was significantly increased within one hour after the injury relative to the normal rat brain (p < 0.01) and continued to increase for 24 hours. In conclusion, early changes of BBB and endogenous superoxide scavenging activity in rat cryogenic injured brain indicate that BBB may be an early target for oxygen free radicals in cryogenic brain injury.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Does the face protect the brain? A case-control study of traumatic brain injury and facial fractures.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between facial fractures and traumatic brain injury is controversial. Some studies show an increased risk of brain injury with the presence of facial fractures while others claim that facial fractures protect against brain injury. OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between facial fractures and traumatic brain injuries. DESIGN: Case-control study. SETTING: Subjects were recruited from the emergency departments of 7 hospitals in the Seattle, Wash, area. PATIENTS: Three thousand eight hundred forty-nine injured bicyclists and 5 scene deaths were identified from March 1, 1992, to August 31, 1994, with complete data available on 3388 bicyclists. INTERVENTIONS: None. RESULTS: The study group was composed of 1602 cases with injuries to the head, face, or brain and 1540 control subjects. There were 203 bicyclists with traumatic brain injuries, of whom 62 had an identifiable intracranial injury and 141 suffered a concussion. A total of 81 patients sustained facial fractures. The odds ratio for the risk of intracranial injury associated with facial fractures after adjustment for significant confounders was 9.9 (95% confidence interval, 5.1-19.3). The effect was less strong but still present when all traumatic brain injuries including concussions were considered (odds ratio, 2; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-3.7). No association was found for concussion only. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates no evidence that facial fractures help prevent traumatic brain injury. Data indicate that facial fractures are markers for increased risk of brain injury.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Stereotactic radiosurgery plus whole-brain radiation therapy vs stereotactic radiosurgery alone for treatment of brain metastases: a randomized controlled trial.

CONTEXT: In patients with brain metastases, it is unclear whether adding up-front whole-brain radiation therapy (WBRT) to stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) has beneficial effects on mortality or neurologic function compared with SRS alone. OBJECTIVE: To determine if WBRT combined with SRS results in improvements in survival, brain tumor control, functional preservation rate, and frequency of neurologic death. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS: Randomized controlled trial of 132 patients with 1 to 4 brain metastases, each less than 3 cm in diameter, enrolled at 11 hospitals in Japan between October 1999 and December 2003. INTERVENTIONS: Patients were randomly assigned to receive WBRT plus SRS (65 patients) or SRS alone (67 patients). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary end point was overall survival; secondary end points were brain tumor recurrence, salvage brain treatment, functional preservation, toxic effects of radiation, and cause of death. RESULTS: The median survival time and the 1-year actuarial survival rate were 7.5 months and 38.5% (95% confidence interval, 26.7%-50.3%) in the WBRT + SRS group and 8.0 months and 28.4% (95% confidence interval, 17.6%-39.2%) for SRS alone (P = .42). The 12-month brain tumor recurrence rate was 46.8% in the WBRT + SRS group and 76.4% for SRS alone group (P<.001). Salvage brain treatment was less frequently required in the WBRT + SRS group (n = 10) than with SRS alone (n = 29) (P<.001). Death was attributed to neurologic causes in 22.8% of patients in the WBRT + SRS group and in 19.3% of those treated with SRS alone (P = .64). There were no significant differences in systemic and neurologic functional preservation and toxic effects of radiation. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with SRS alone, the use of WBRT plus SRS did not improve survival for patients with 1 to 4 brain metastases, but intracranial relapse occurred considerably more frequently in those who did not receive WBRT. Consequently, salvage treatment is frequently required when up-front WBRT is not used. TRIAL REGISTRATION: umin.ac.jp/ctr Identifier: C000000412.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Experimental study on brain oxygenation in relation to tissue water redistribution and brain oedema.

The aim of the present experimental research was to study brain oxygenation parameters in relation to tissue water movement and brain cortex oedema caused by focal brain ischemia. It has been demonstrated that local osmotic dehydration of the parietal brain cortex, mercury compounds (aquaporin inhibitors) and brain cortex oedema resulting from focal brain ischemia all influence extra-capillary oxygen transport lowering tissue respiration rates and oxygen transfer coefficients. The changes of brain oxygenation parameters in case of cortex ischemic oedema are reflected in the gas composition (oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressure) of the blood in v. jugularis. A short course of hyperbaric treatment results in normalization of water content in the brain. The results are interpreted in terms of the functioning of tissue microcirculation that might participate, at the extra-capillary level, in brain oxygenation.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Traumatic brain swelling in head injured patients: brain edema or vascular engorgement?

Brain edema and vascular engorgement have been used interchangeably to describe brain swelling associated with severe brain trauma and their relative contribution of these compartments to the swelling process remains controversial. In this report, imaging techniques for measurement of brain water and blood volume have been used to study the relative contribution of blood volume and tissue water to the swelling process in severely brain injured patients. More specifically, magnetic resonance techniques for non-invasive tissue water measures founded on mathematical models and later substantiated in laboratory and clinical studies were used for measure of brain tissue water. These studies were combined with measures of cerebral blood volume utilizing indicator dilution methods. Studies indicated that brain water was increased while blood volume decreased. These studies provide compelling evidence that the major contributor to brain swelling is brain edema and not blood volume. Therapies should now be targeted toward preventing edema development and enhancing edema resolution.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Brain water accumulation in pseudotumour cerebri demonstrated by MR-imaging of brain water self-diffusion.

We studied brain water self diffusion in pseudotumour cerebri by MR-imaging using single spin echo pulse sequences with pulsed magnetic field gradients of different magnitude. The methods is based on the fact that the movement of water molecules is restricted in brain tissue and that accumulation of water in the brain tissue will enhance the self diffusion of water. In order to evaluate the brain water content in pseudotumour cerebri we compared the water self diffusion coefficient in various regions of the brain in pseudotumour patients with that of healthy controls. Ten patients with pseudotumour cerebri were studied. All had increased ICP and increased resistance to CSF outflow. All patients had normal conventional MR spin echo images without focal lesions and a normal sized ventricular system. All patients had abnormal diffusion images showing increased water diffusion. Some patients had in particular increased diffusion in the periventricular regions, others in the whole brain. The diffusion coefficients in all brain regions of interest were significantly higher in patients than in controls. The findings suggest that patients with pseudotumour cerebri have a convective transependymal flow of water causing an interstitial brain oedema and in addition an intracellular brain water accumulation.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Enzyme activities of monoamine oxidase, catechol-O-methyltransferase and gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase in primary astroglial cultures and adult rat brain from different brain regions.

The activities of monoamine oxidase (MAO), catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase (GABA-T) were measured in primary cultures from newborn rat cultivated from 6 different brain regions. These primary cultures contained mostly astroglial cells, evaluated by the presence of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAp, alpha-albumin) and the S-100 protein. The enzyme activities in the corresponding brain area from adult rat were also quantified. MAO activities were on the same level in 14-day old cultures and in adult rat brain homogenates, with significantly lower values in brain stem as compared to the other brain regions examined. COMT activities were on a higher level in the cultures than in adult rat brain homogenates. Astroglial cells from hippocampus were found to have the highest and those from brain stem the lowest COMT-activities. GABA-T activities were lower in the cultures than in adult rat homogenates. No significant differences were seen in the various astroglial cultures. Accumulation of [3H]dopamine and [3H]gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) visualized by autoradiography showed only a slight uptake of dopamine in comparison with the uptake of GABA. It is concluded that astroglial cells in culture have enzymatic properties similar to those of astroglial cells in different brain regions of adult rat brain. Studies are in progress to evaluate if the regional heterogeneity observed among cultivated astroglial cells is affected by in vivo differentiation until cultivation and/or time in culture.

4-Aminobutyrate Transaminase↗
PubMed1998

Patterns of relapse and late toxicity after resection and whole-brain radiotherapy for solitary brain metastases.

BACKGROUND: This retrospective analysis was performed in order to evaluate the pattern of relapse and the risk of late toxicity for solitary brain metastases treated with surgery and whole-brain radiotherapy and to correlate the results with those from radiosurgical trials. PATIENTS AND METHODS: From a total of 66 patients, 52 received 10 x 3 Gy and 10 were treated with 20 x 2 Gy whole-brain radiotherapy after resection of their brain metastases. RESULTS: The actuarial probability of relapse was 27% and 55% after 1 and 2 year(s), respectively. The local relapse rate (at the original site of resected brain metastases) was rather high for melanoma, non-breast adenocarcinoma, and squamous-cell carcinoma. No local relapse occurred in breast cancer and small-cell carcinoma. Failure elsewhere in the brain seemed to be influenced by extracranial disease activity. Size of brain metastases and total dose showed no correlation with relapse rate. Occurrence of brain relapse was not associated with a reduced survival time, because 10/15 patients who developed a relapse received salvage therapy. Of the patients, 11 had symptoms of late radiation toxicity (the actuarial probability was 42% after 2 years). CONCLUSIONS: Most results of surgical and radiosurgical studies are comparable to ours. Several randomized trials investigate surgical resection versus radiosurgery, as well as the effects of additional whole-brain radiotherapy in order to define the treatment of choice. Some data support the adjuvant application of 10 x 3 Gy over 2 weeks as a reasonable compromise when local control, toxicity, and treatment time have to be considered.

Actuarial Analysis↗
PubMed2000

Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) changes in children treated with whole brain and partial brain irradiation. A review and analysis.

PURPOSE: Neuropsychological impairment has been reported following whole brain and partial brain irradiation in children. The purpose of this analysis was to assess current knowledge, with focus on correlation with radiation dose, irradiated volume and age. METHOD: Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) data, representing 1,938 children, were derived from 36 publications and analyzed as to radiation dose, irradiated volume, and age. RESULTS: FSIQ after whole brain irradiation showed a non-linear decline as dosage increased. The dose-effect relationship was age-related, with more pronounced FSIQ decline at younger age. FSIQ test results below the normal level (< 85) were found at doses higher than 24 and 36 Gy in children under age 3, and older than age 6, respectively. Mean FSIQ test result after 18 Gy was 100, thus at the mean standard value; a minor decline was detectable only when compared to test results of a control group. Young children scored at this dose in the low normal range. Partial brain irradiation caused minor FSIQ decline, with measurable effects at dose levels > 50 Gy. CONCLUSION: The collected data suggest that whole brain irradiation doses of 18 and 24 Gy have no major impact on intellectual outcome in children older than age 6, but may cause impairment in younger children. Doses > 24 Gy comprise a substantial risk for FSIQ decline, even in older children. At equal dose levels, partial brain irradiation is less damaging than whole brain irradiation. The authors are well aware of limitations in the interpretation of data collected for the current review. Thus, further research is required to evaluate the effect of low-dose whole brain irradiation as well as partial brain irradiation on FSIQ development.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2003

Distribution of astrocytic plaques in the corticobasal degeneration brain and comparison with tuft-shaped astrocytes in the progressive supranuclear palsy brain.

Corticobasal degeneration (CBD) and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) have some clinical and pathological features in common. Each, however, has been shown to have specific astrocytic inclusions. CBD is characterized by astrocytic plaques, and PSP is characterized by tuft-shaped astrocytes. To clarify differences between these inclusions, we investigated intracerebral distribution of astrocytic plaques and tuft-shaped astrocytes in autopsied brains of patients with either CBD or PSP. Specimens from ten patients with CBD and five patients with PSP were stained by the Gallyas-Braak method. Densities of the astrocytic plaques and tuft-shaped astrocytes were determined for 11 cerebral cortical regions, 6 subcortical nuclei, 5 brain stem regions, the cerebellar cortex and the dentate nucleus. Astrocytic plaques were most abundant in the prefrontal and premotor areas in the cerebral cortex of CBD brains, whereas tuft-shaped astrocytes were most prominent in the precentral gyrus and premotor area of PSP brains. Many astrocytic plaques were observed in the caudate nucleus of CBD brains, whereas tuft-shaped astrocytes were abundant in both the caudate and putamen and moderate in number in the globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus and thalamus in PSP brains. Very slight accumulation of astrocytic plaques was seen in the brain stem of CBD brains, whereas numerous tuft-shaped astrocytes were found in the red nucleus and superior colliculus of PSP brains. Distribution of the astrocytic plaques and tuft-shaped astrocytes differed greatly. Thus, CBD and PSP can be considered different entities.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Extracellular fluid S100B in the injured brain: a future surrogate marker of acute brain injury?

The authors describe the measurement of S100B protein in brain extracellular fluid (ECF) of patients with acute brain injury (traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid haemorrhage) using the technique of microdialysis. To our knowledge, this is the first report of S100B measurement in the human brain. Acute Brain Injury (ABI) is a leading cause of death and disability and the need for a practical and sensitive biochemical marker for monitoring these patients is urgent. The calcium binding astrocyte protein, S100B, may be a candidate for this role. Previous serum studies have shown S100B to be a sensitive predictor of mortality and rise in intracranial pressure in ABI, but it has never before been measured directly within the brain. The ECF reflects the local biochemistry of the brain parenchyma, and the use of intracerebral microdialysis opens up the possibility of studying many novel surrogate markers of injury in the laboratory, in addition to the conventional markers it measures at the bedside (lactate, pyruvate, glucose, and glycerol). In this preliminary report of two cases, the authors demonstrate the quantification of S100B in ECF microdialysate, and investigate whether changes in hourly S100B profile can be related to secondary brain injury. It is shown that extracellular concentrations of S100B change markedly in response to secondary brain injury. Further investigation is required to determine whether extracellular S100B measurement in ABI could assist in patient management.

Adult↗