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PubMed2001

Links between social understanding and social behavior in verbally able children with autism.

This study investigated the relations between various measures of social understanding and social interaction competence in verbally able children with autism. Measures of social understanding included measures of verbalizable knowledge (false belief understanding, affective perspective taking), as well as measures of more intuitive forms of social responsiveness (empathy, concern to distress, and initiating joint attention). Two measures of social interaction competence were employed: level of engagement with peers on the playground, and prosocial behavior in a structured laboratory task. For children with autism, initiating joint attention and empathy were strongly related to both measures of social interaction competence. No understanding-behavior links were identified for a language-age matched comparison sample of developmentally delayed children. Several accounts of these understanding-behavior links are considered, including the possibility that for children with autism, more impaired forms of understanding are more closely linked to behavior because they serve as limits on competence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Does parenting differ based on social class?: African American women's perceived socialization for achievement.

Research has provided some evidence of ethnic group, gender, and class differences in the socialization for achievement. However, there is little research on African American women with the exception of the studies of low-income, single mothers. To understand the similarities and differences in socialization for achievement based on social class, middle-class African American women from working- and middle-class backgrounds were studied using qualitative and quantitative methods to compare them on issues related to achievement socialization. Women from middle-class backgrounds reported that their parents had higher expectations for them and were more involved in their education than did women from working-class backgrounds. More middle-class parents expected their daughters to be successful in careers than did working-class parents. Women from working-class families did receive support from their parents but they did not have as much support as did the women from middle-class backgrounds. Women from working-class families perhaps made use of other sources to support their desire to succeed. There were no differences in perceived race-related socialization based on social class. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMed1997

Social self-efficacy and short-term variability in social relationships: the MacArthur successful aging studies.

Dealing with others entails both stability and short-term variability of the functions and outcomes of social relationships. The authors argue that patterns of short-term intraindividual variability in social relationships and self-efficacy beliefs contribute interpretable information about social adaptation. On the basis of 23 repeated weekly measurements of a sample of 32 participants ages 56 to 88 years, the authors examined the extent to which fluctuations in perceived relational outcomes are related to fluctuations of social self-efficacy. Results showed that individuals differ systematically in respect to the extent to which they experience and display fluctuations in self-efficacy and availability of social relationships. Moreover, when individuals perceive others to be available across time, social self-efficacy beliefs are stronger and fluctuate less across time.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2006

The influence of social environment and social image on adolescent smoking.

This purpose of this article is to explore differences by gender and school grade in patterns of association among social influences and tobacco use. Data from the 1999 (N = 15,038) and 2000 (N = 35,828) National Youth Tobacco Survey (American Legacy Foundation, 1999, 2000), a nationally representative, repeated cross-sectional survey, were used in the analysis. The authors compared effects on adolescent smoking. Direct paths from social environment to current smoking increased from middle school to high school. Indirect paths with social image mediating this relationship revealed a smaller increase. The pattern was constant across subsamples. Social image of smokers mediated the influence of social environment on adolescent smoking. Social image had a greater effect on smoking among middle school boys and high school girls.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Using social stories and comic strip conversations to promote socially valid outcomes for children with autism.

Very little is documented regarding the efficacy of social stories and comic strip conversations for promoting an understanding of social situations and the appropriate social behaviors of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In addition, few studies on the efficacy of social stories have examined whether outcomes are socially valid. The purpose of this article is to respond to some of the gaps in the literature on the efficacy of a frequently used intervention for children with ASD and to describe a family-centered collaborative approach to developing social stories and comic strip conversations. The results of intervention employing an A-B design are reported for two case vignettes. Clinical implications, limitations of the available data, and potential factors contributing to outcome variability are discussed.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed2002

Theories on coping with loss: the impact of social support and self-esteem on adjustment to emotional and social loneliness following a partner's death in later life.

OBJECTIVES: This longitudinal study focused on the role of self-esteem and social support in adjustment to loneliness experienced by bereaved elderly persons. This study also examined the contributions of a general and a specific coping theory toward explaining loneliness. A distinction has been made between emotional loneliness and social loneliness/perceived support. The theory of mental incongruity predicts that the presence of more favorable conditions, such as higher self-esteem or more social support, results in less loneliness (i.e., less incongruity). According to the theory of relational loneliness, the partner's death leads to a loss of identity, thus increasing emotional loneliness, and social support does not mitigate emotional loneliness following a loss. METHODS: In total, 101 participants, aged 55-89 years, were interviewed before and after their partners' deaths. RESULTS: Findings were ambiguous with regard to both theories. As hypothesized, partner loss lowered self-esteem, resulting in higher emotional loneliness and social loneliness, that is, perception of less support. Supportive personal relations reduced emotional loneliness. The presence of close friends, however, seemed to increase emotional and social loneliness (i.e., decrease perceived support) in the long term, particularly among bereaved participants with lower self-esteem. DISCUSSION: The findings highlight the need to integrate theoretical concepts. In explaining adjustment to a partner's death, attention should be paid to underlying mechanisms relevant to the restoration process (e.g., identity change) and the ways in which the adjustment process can be improved (e.g., intimate relationships) or impeded (e.g., dependency-sustaining relationships).

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2006

An examination of the social networks and social isolation in older and younger adults living with HIV/AIDS.

This study examined social networks and social isolation in older (50 years or more) and younger (ages 20 to 39) adults with HIV/AIDS. The author conducted interviews with 88 individuals living with HIV/AIDS in the Pacific Northwest. Both groups' social networks had similar patterns; however, older adults were more likely to live alone. More than 38 percent of older adults and 54 percent of older adults of color were at risk of social isolation compared with 25 percent of those 20 to 39 years of age. Older men and older adults of color had significantly lower scores on the social network scale than others. Having a confidant and receiving instrumental support were significantly correlated with reduced HIV stigma. Implications for social work practitioners are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health.

Three perspectives on the efficacy of social capital have been explored in the public health literature. A "social support" perspective argues that informal networks are central to objective and subjective welfare; an "inequality" thesis posits that widening economic disparities have eroded citizens' sense of social justice and inclusion, which in turn has led to heightened anxiety and compromised rising life expectancies; a "political economy" approach sees the primary determinant of poor health outcomes as the socially and politically mediated exclusion from material resources. A more comprehensive but grounded theory of social capital is presented that develops a distinction between bonding, bridging, and linking social capital. It is argued that this framework helps to reconcile these three perspectives, incorporating a broader reading of history, politics, and the empirical evidence regarding the mechanisms connecting types of network structure and state-society relations to public health outcomes.

Health Promotion↗
PubMed1985

Depressive symptoms, social networks and social support of elderly women.

A total of 1,144 white married women aged 65-75 years living in Washington County, Maryland were interviewed during February-August 1979 as part of a larger study. This cross-sectional analysis was undertaken to investigate the question of whether or not selected demographic, social network, and social support characteristics of these women were related to their level of depressive symptoms. Women at the low end of the socioeconomic scale were found more likely to have a high level of depressive symptoms than were women at the high end. Two structural characteristics, size and homogeneity of the social network, were also found to be related to symptoms of depression, although only homogeneity of the social network reached statistical significance. There was a larger percentage of women with a high level of depressive symptoms among those with small networks and among those with heterogeneous networks. Those women with good quality networks, which offer the opportunity for social support, were much less likely to have a high level of depressive symptoms than others. Cross-sectionally, social network factors were related to level of depressive symptoms; this relationship now needs to be demonstrated prospectively.

Aged↗
PubMed1995

On the nature of embarrassability: shyness, social evaluation, and social skill.

In this study, the correlates of embarrassability, or chronic susceptibility to embarrassment, were examined. Competing theoretical models suggest either that embarrassable people should be especially concerned about others' evaluations of them or that they should lack social skills. Further, shyness and embarrassment are typically considered to be closely related states. To test these propositions, 310 participants provided extensive self-reports of social skill, fear of negative evaluation, self-esteem, self-consciousness, and negative affectivity. Regression and factor analyses indicated that, compared to those of low embarrassability, highly embarrassable people are particularly concerned with the normative appropriateness of behavior and are more motivated to avoid rejection from others. In contrast, shyness was best predicted by low social self-confidence and low social skill. The data best support a social-evaluation model of embarrassment and argue that embarrassability is linked to the appropriateness of social behavior, and shyness to its effectiveness.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

The relative contribution of trait and social influences to the links among perceived social support, affect, and self-esteem.

Although perceived support is influenced by both the personality traits of support recipients as well as various social factors, it is unknown to what extent these two types of influences account for perceived support's link to mental health. We investigated these relations using multivariate generalizability analyses. In three samples, both the trait and social influence components of perceived support were related to favorable affect and to self-esteem. The magnitude of the correlations between perceived support and mental health was similar for both the trait and social influence components. Similar findings were obtained for social conflict, although the links between conflict and mental health varied somewhat depending upon the level of analysis. These findings suggest that social support theories and interventions should include both trait and social mechanisms to explain and modify perceived support and mental health.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

HIV infection: social network, social support, and CD4 lymphocyte values in infected homosexual men in Malmö, Sweden.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The aim was to determine if there is an association between social network and social support and the CD4 cell count in HIV infected homosexual men. DESIGN: The study was cross sectional. A structured questionnaire assessing psychosocial factors such as social network and social support was administered at interview. Information on CD4 cell counts and HIV symptoms were obtained from participants' medical records. SETTING: The study population consisted of all HIV seropositive homosexual and bisexual men who had not been diagnosed as having AIDS seen at the Department of Infectious Diseases, the only hospital clinic in the city of Malmö (230,000 inhabitants), Sweden that provides care for HIV infected patients. PARTICIPANTS: Altogether 47 (68%) of 69 men in the population agreed to be interviewed. MAIN RESULTS: A low CD4 cell count was found more frequently in men with low social participation scores (OR 3.3; 95% CI 1.0, 11), in those with a low adequacy of social participation (OR 3.8; 95% CI 1.1, 13), and in men with low material support scores (OR 3.9; 95% CI 1.1, 13). After adjustment for age and time of awareness of the HIV infection, the two former associations remained statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: These results, if reproduced in a longitudinal study, might suggest that psychosocial factors can affect an individual's immune system.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

The influence of social networks and social support on violence by persons with serious mental illness.

OBJECTIVE: The authors examined the relationship between violent acts and threats by persons with serious mental illness, the size and composition of their social networks, and characteristics of the social support they received. METHODS: A group of 169 respondents with serious mental illness and 59 of their significant others were interviewed using structured and semi-structured protocols to elicit data on demographic characteristics, clinical characteristics, characteristics of respondents' social networks and of the social support they received, and perceptions of threat within the social network. Data on acts and threats of violence by respondents over an 18-month period were collected from self-reports by respondents and significant others and from hospital and court records. RESULTS: Fifty-six respondents either threatened violence or committed a violent act during the study period. Respondents with a diagnosis of schizophrenia were more likely to commit violent acts but were not more likely to threaten violence than were respondents with other diagnoses. Respondents in larger networks, those with networks composed primarily of relatives, and those who lived with unrelated persons were more likely to threaten violence. Financial dependence on family was associated with more violent threats and acts. Respondents who perceived hostility from others were more likely to engage in violent threats and acts, and those with confused thinking were less likely to act or threaten violence. More than half of the targets of violence were respondents' relatives, particularly mothers living with a respondent. Respondents who were violent perceived their significant others as threatening but did not perceive themselves as being threatening in return. CONCLUSIONS: The interpersonal and social contexts of respondents and their perceptions of these contexts are important considerations in assessing risk for violence by persons with mental illness. Mothers who live with an adult offspring with schizophrenia may be at increased risk for being a target of violence. Violence by persons with psychiatric disorders may be linked to their perceptions and experience of being threatened by others.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

The social worker joins the team: a look at the socialization process.

Although much has been written about interdisciplinary teams, little is known about how social workers who begin employment in interdisciplinary settings learn how to be team players. This article, based on a year-long ethnographic sociolinguistic research study in one such setting, describes and analyzes the interactive experiences of a social worker who, during the course of the study, changed roles from newcomer to instructor of social work students. Through an analysis of the social worker's interactions, several observations were made. (1) Three team rules prescribed how team members were to participate (use trigger words, develop behaviorally specific descriptors, use action verbs). (2) The "coaching" of the new social worker and her coaching of students were visible in the two teams that were observed. (3) Certain language was preferred by the teams and disciplines. (4) Over time the social worker became more assertive and pro-active.

Communication↗
PubMed2003

Attitudes toward group-based inequality: social dominance or social identity?

In five studies we explored how the context in which people think about the social structure and the implications of the social structure for one's in-group affect attitudes toward inequality. In Studies 1 and 2 we found that social dominance orientation (SDO) scores reflect attitudes toward specific types of inequality that are salient in context. Consistent with social identity theory, in Studies 3 to 5 we found that SDO scores reflected the interests of specific group identities. Indeed, when we compared existing privileged and disadvantaged groups, and when we manipulated in-group status, we found that participants held more positive attitudes toward inequality when the in-group was privileged, compared to when the in-group was disadvantaged. Across all of our studies, results were consistent with the contention that attitudes toward inequality are group-specific and depend on the social-structural position of salient in-groups. We discuss the implications of our findings for social dominance theory.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

False consensus in social context: differential projection and perceived social distance.

The study implicates the notion of perceived social distance as an explanation of why ingroup false consensus exceeds outgroup false consensus. Whilst previous demonstrations are best understood from social identity perspectives, the findings reported here suggest that self-group as well as inter-group comparisons can underlie such effects. In particular, perceived social distance was shown to mediate the effect of social categorisation: ingroup false consensus was greater because more social distance was perceived with the outgroup. The findings also extended to non-student samples and generalised across both opinion and ability items. In addition, examining the effect of item type in conjunction with social categorisation seriously challenged the generality of the false consensus effect.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Human capital, social capital and social exclusion: impacts on the opportunity of households with youth to leave poverty.

Based on a sample survey, this paper, analyzes the impact of human capital, social capital and social exclusion on the opportunity of Hong Kong families with youth members to leave poverty. Educational attainment of the youth members and adult family members, as well as the quantity and quality of social networks were found to have significant positive impacts, while social exclusion from the labor market of the adult members was found to have significant negative impact on their opportunity to leave poverty. Among all factors, quality of social network is the most influential. The author suggests that in order to help families out of poverty and enable positive development of youth members, poverty alleviation policies or programs should be targeted to help the youth in poor families to build up a quality social network.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

From social expectations to social cognition in early infancy.

The end of the first year marks an important social-cognitive transition for human infants. Around this time, they start to engage in a new variety of joint attentional behaviors not clearly present in the preceding months. These new social behaviors are thought to index infants' understanding of intentions in others-an understanding that ultimately gives way to an active participation in human culture. Given the importance of such understanding, the question is from where infants' new social-cognitive repertoire may originate. Well before the emergence of joint attention, infants are sophisticated social beings, readily able to form expectations about others and inclined to relate differentially to them. The author focuses on the potential connection between social expectations developing in the context of early face-to-face interactions and the social-cognitive changes taking place by the end of the first year of life.

Attention↗