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PubMed1991

Amusement machine playing in childhood and adolescence: a comparative analysis of video games and fruit machines.

The introduction of video games has met with mixed reviews. In the US, an ongoing debate focusing on the potential problems of video game playing has been taken up by parents, politicians and social scientists. A number of the concerns that have been raised about the playing of video games in the US are very similar to the concerns raised about the playing of fruit machines (slot machines) in the UK. This paper attempts to put the on-going US and UK amusement machine debates into an empirical perspective and attempts a comparative analysis of video games and fruit machines by examining: incidence of play, sex differences and psychological characteristics of machine players, observational findings in arcade setting, the alleged negative consequences of amusement machine playing (i.e. increased aggression and addiction), and an appraisal of amusement machines' positive aspects. Future directions and an expanded version of Brown's (1989) developmental model of a pathology of man-machine relationships are also discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Social play in juvenile rats: a decade of methodological and experimental research.

The social play behavior of juvenile rats was originally described nearly a century ago, but research methods have only recently included the controlled laboratory investigation of psychobiological variables. This review covers the experimental literature of social play or play fighting behavior in juvenile laboratory rats reported during the last decade. Innovative measures for quantifying social play are described; hormonal, pharmacological, and neurological variables are examined; and interpretative concepts of social play are discussed. The current emphasis on measures and procedures as well as the limited scope of current research effort suggests a formative stage of research development.

Agonistic Behavior↗
PubMed2005

The play's the thing: a clinical-developmental perspective on video games.

In this article, computer and video games are discussed as electronic play. Major perspectives on play and salient developmental issues are presented, along with similarities and differences between electronic play and other types of play. The authors consider possible benefits and risks associated with this type of play, with particular attention paid to cognitive and socioemotional development. Recommendations for clinicians in their work with children, adolescents, and parents are discussed, as are future directions for research.

Child↗
PubMed1995

The play approach to learning in the context of families and schools: an alternative paradigm for nutrition and fitness education in the 21st century.

An alternative paradigm for nutrition and fitness education centers on understanding and developing skill in implementing a play approach to learning about healthful eating and promoting active play in the context of the child, the family, and the school. The play approach is defined as a process for learning that is intrinsically motivated, enjoyable, freely chosen, nonliteral, safe, and actively engaged in by young learners. Making choices, assuming responsibility for one's decisions and actions, and having fun are inherent components of the play approach to learning. In this approach, internal cognitive transactions and intrinsic motivation are the primary forces that ultimately determine healthful choices and life habits. Theoretical models of children's learning--the dynamic systems theory and the cognitive-developmental theory of Jean Piaget--provide a theoretical basis for nutrition and fitness education in the 21st century. The ultimate goal is to develop partnerships of children, families, and schools in ways that promote the well-being of children and translate into healthful life habits. The play approach is an ongoing process of learning that is applicable to learners of all ages.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Development of play behavior in neonatally undernourished rats.

The effects of neonatal food and sensory deprivation on play social behavior (boxing, wrestling, and pinning) were studied in male and female Wistar strain rats from 20 to 60 days of age. Data showed that the mean frequency of total play was markedly increased in neonatally underfed subjects. Play did also increase in the females and during the interaction in pairs and in the play that occurred during the prepuberal period. These findings suggest that early food restriction and the unavoidable sensory deprivation associated to the undernourishing procedure, interfere with the neuroendocrine maturational processes of central and peripheral modulatory mechanisms underlying play behavior.

Aging↗
PubMed1997

Roles of temperamental arousal and gender-segregated play in young children's social adjustment.

The hypothesis that gender differences in children's adjustment is partially influenced by differences in temperament and interactions with same-sex peers was examined. Fifty-seven predominantly White, middle-class preschoolers (29 boys and 28 girls, M age = 54.5 months) participated. Measures were taken of children's arousability, problem behaviors, and tendencies to play with same-sex peers. A semester later, children's peer status was assessed. Analyses revealed that arousability and same-sex peer play interacted to predict problem behaviors. For boys high in arousability, play with same-sex peers increased problem behaviors. In contrast, arousable girls who played with other girls were relatively unlikely to show problem behaviors. Moreover, the interaction of arousability and same-sex peer play predicted boys' (but not girls') peer status, and this relation was partially mediated by problem behaviors. The role of gender-related processes is discussed.

Arousal↗
PubMed1999

Distinctive messages in infant-directed lullabies and play songs.

Mothers were recorded singing a song of their choice in both a lullaby style and a play-song style to their 6-month-olds. Adult raters identified the play-song-style and lullaby-style versions with 100% accuracy. Play-song-style renditions were rated as being more brilliant, clipped, and rhythmic and as having more smiling and more prominent consonants. Lullaby-style renditions were characterized as being more airy, smooth, and soothing. Adults observed videotapes (without sound) of 6-month-olds listening to alternating lullaby-style and play-song-style trials and performed at above chance levels when determining which music the infants were hearing. Coding analyses revealed that infants focused their attention more toward themselves during lullaby-style trials and more toward the external world during play-song-style trials. These results suggest that singing may be used to regulate infants' states and to communicate emotional information.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Opiates and play dominance in juvenile rats.

Social play between pairs of individually housed juvenile rats was studied by measuring pinning frequencies occurring during rough-and-tumble play. Low doses of morphine increased play, and opioid blockade with naloxone reduced play. Dominance, as measured by which pinned which most, was markedly reduced by naloxone and slightly increased by morphine. These effects were most apparent when animals were treated with these drugs continuously from the beginning of play testing. Although the respective drugs tended to reverse established dominance patterns (i.e., naloxone made dominant animals more submissive, and morphine made submissive animals more dominant), it was apparent that previously established social learning limited the effectiveness of these manipulations. In general, the results are consistent with the proposition that brain opioids are important in controlling the vigor of social relations.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

The relation of children's everyday nonsocial peer play behavior to their emotionality, regulation, and social functioning.

The relations of children's nonsocial behavior to their emotionality, regulation, and social functioning were examined in a short-term longitudinal study. Parents (primarily mothers) and teachers rated children's effortful regulation, emotionality, asocial behaviors, problem behaviors, and social acceptance, and children's nonsocial play behaviors were observed for two semesters. Peers also rated likability. Children's observed reticent activities were related to adults' ratings of high regulation, low externalizing problems, and high asocial behavior, as well as to low anger and low positive emotion. On the other hand, solitary play was associated with low positive emotion and low regulation over time and with high asocial behavior and high peer exclusion. Peer rejection mediated the relation of internalizing emotions (anxiety, low positive emotion) and regulation to solitary play later in the school year, and asocial play mediated the relation of internalizing emotions to both solitary and reticent play behavior.

Antisocial Personality Disorder↗
PubMed1994

Play as physical flexibility training in five ceboid primates.

Instantaneous focal animal sampling of positional behavior (posture and locomotion) during the play and nonplay of adults and juveniles of 5 ceboid monkeys (Alouatta palliata, Ateles geoffroyi, Cacajao calvus, Cebus capucinus, and Saimiri boliviensis) in an optimal design field study of the function of play as physical flexibility training produced a sample of 98,261 observations. Analyses of 67 distinct modes of positional behavior demonstrated that significantly enhanced rates of suspension and nonquadrupedal locomotion plus reduced rates of quadrupedal locomotion (especially quadrupedal walking) typified play in all 5 species. These findings support the hypothesis that play promotes the development of dynamic and static flexibility in arboreal primates. This argument from design that play functions as physical flexibility training was discussed as fully compatible with other functional interpretations.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Deficient social and play behavior in juvenile and adult rats after neonatal cortical lesion: effects of chronic pubertal cannabinoid treatment.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of neonatal excitotoxic lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) on social play, social behavior unrelated to play, and self-grooming in juvenile and adult rats. We additionally examined the behavioral effects of chronic pubertal treatment with the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 (WIN) in order to test the hypothesis that early lesions render the brain vulnerable to cannabinoid intake in later life. Neonatal mPFC lesions and pubertal WIN treatment disrupted social play, social behavior, and self-grooming in juvenile and adult rats. Additionally, we observed more social play behaviors during light cycle in WIN-treated than in vehicle-treated rats. Notably, the combination of surgery and WIN treatment disrupted social behavior in lesioned and sham-lesioned rats. The present data indicate that the mPFC is important for adequate juvenile response selection in the context of social play and might be involved in the development of adult social and nonsocial behavior. Moreover, our data add further evidence for an involvement of the cannabinoid system in anxiety and social behavior. Additive effects of neonatal surgery-induced stress or cortical lesions in combination with pubertal cannabinoid administration are also shown. The disturbances of social and nonsocial behavior in rats are comparable to symptoms of early frontal cortex damage, as well as neurodevelopmental disorders in humans, such as schizophrenia and autism. Therefore, we propose the combination of neonatal cortical lesions with chronic cannabinoid administration during puberty as an animal model for studying neuronal mechanisms of impaired social functioning in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Aging↗
PubMed1983

Symbolic play and early language development in normal and mentally retarded children.

This study investigated the relationship of early language development and symbolic play behaviors in normal and mentally retarded children. Piaget's type IIA symbolic play, the ability to represent one object with another, was assessed by employing an object stimulus gradient. Forty children served as subjects: 20 normal and 20 trainable mentally retarded youngsters, 10 each at MLU Stage Pre-I and MLU Stage I. The results of a three-way ANOVA revealed significant main effects of MLU Stage and object condition and a significant interaction of MLU by object condition. The MLU Stage Pre-I children demonstrated significantly more restricted symbolic play than did the MLU Stage I children regardless of developmental status. A Pearson product-moment correlation between MLU and mean symbolic play score showed a high positive correlation between the two variables. Symbolic play which involves the use of one object to represent another was found to be a strong correlate of early language development.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Cultural scripts, memories of childhood abuse, and multiple identities: a study of role-played enactments.

This study compared the reports of satanic, sexual, and physical abuse of persons instructed to role-play either dissociative identity disorder (DID) (n = 33), major depression (n = 33), or a college student who experienced minor adjustment problems ("normal") (n = 33) across a number of trials that included role-played hypnosis. As hypothesized, more of the participants who were asked to role-play DID reported at least one instance of satanic ritual abuse and sexual abuse compared with those who role-played depression or a college student with minor adjustment problems. DID role-players reported more incidents of sexual abuse and more severe physical and sexual abuse than did the major depression role-players. Further, the DID role-players differed from the normal role-players on all the measures of frequency and severity of physical and sexual abuse. Participants in all groups reported more frequent and severe incidents of physical abuse after role-played hypnosis than they did prior to it.

Adjustment Disorders↗
PubMed1998

The nature of teacher talk in early childhood classrooms and its relationship to children's play with objects and peers.

The nature of teacher talk in early childhood classrooms as well as how such talk is related to children's level of play with objects and peers during free play was examined. The purpose of the study was to determine what levels of teacher talk were related to child functioning. Eighty-nine children (42 girls, 47 boys; age range = 31 through 63 months) enrolled in three early childhood programs participated in the study. Results demonstrated that when teachers are within 3 ft of a child, they do not talk to that child 81% of the time and they talk at high levels 18% of the time. Although previous research suggests that high-level teacher talk should be related to high-level play with objects, the results indicated that high-level teacher talk was related to lower levels of play with objects and unrelated to play with peers on the part of the children.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1990

Affective expression in children's fantasy play, primary process thinking on the Rorschach, and divergent thinking.

The relationships among expression of primary process thinking on the Rorschach, affective expression in fantasy play, and divergent thinking were investigated in first and second grade children. Sixty children received the rorschach (Holt's scoring system), a play task (Affect in Play Scale), and the Alternate Uses Test. Major hypotheses were supported because the amount of primary process thinking on the Rorschach (frequency and percent) was significantly, positively related to amount of affective expression and primary process expression in play. Also, expression of affect in play (frequency, variety, integration, and comfort) was significantly, positively related to divergent thinking, independent of IQ for both boys and girls. On the Rorschach, percent of primary process was significantly related to divergent thinking for boys. The results suggest that the ability to think imaginatively in a free-association style and the ability to have access to affect-laden material are related processes.

Affect↗
PubMed2003

The difference between playing games with and without the computer: a preliminary view.

The authors address the question of whether associations between video games and cognitive and metacognitive variables depend either on the features of the computer or on the content of the game that the computer allows one to play. An experiment to separate these two kinds of effects was carried out by using a traditional version and a computer-supported version of Pegopolis, a solitaire game. The two versions were exactly the same except that they were played by moving pieces either on a real board or on a virtual computer-presented board. The performance levels and strategies followed during the game by the 40 undergraduates who took part in the experiment were not significantly different in the real and virtual conditions. None of the participants transferred playing strategies or practice from one version of the game to the other. Scores were not affected by gender or by the studies pursued by participants, the habit of playing games in the traditional manner or playing video games, or intelligence. Retrospective reports did not support differences in the subjective experience between the two versions. Results showed that video games, when they do not make much use of the computer's special features, produce effects because of the situations they simulate rather than because of features of the computer itself.

Computers↗
PubMed1993

Play in adulthood. A developmental consideration.

This paper is about normal development, addressing the basic characteristics and evolution of play throughout life, with particular emphasis on the nature of play in adulthood. Although the psychoanalytic literature on play in childhood is extensive, undoubtedly because of its relevance to child analysis, very little has been written on the subject of adult play or on the relationship between adult play and its childhood antecedents.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Mothers' play with toys: a longitudinal study with Down's syndrome infants.

Play with parents is recognized as an important learning medium for all children, yet there have been remarkably few studies of mothers' spontaneous actions with toys while playing with their children and none at all with Down's syndrome infants. This was a home-based study which commenced when the infants were 12 months old, and observations were made at approximately 6-weekly intervals until the infants were 24 months old. Significant differences were noted in mothers' play patterns with different toys and over the year there were marked changes in their actions. These seemed to result from developments in the children's play with toys. The findings reinforce the competency of most mothers as interactors with, and teachers of, their children. Possible implications for intervention strategies are discussed, especially the provision of more specific information about the sequences of development in children's play.

Adult↗