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PubMed1995

The impact of "parent care" on female labor supply decisions.

Data from the 1986-1988 Survey of Income and Program Participation panels were used to analyze how informal caregiving of disabled elderly parents affected female labor supply. Instrumental variables analyses suggested that coresidence with a disabled parent leads to a large, significant reduction in work hours, due primarily to withdrawal from the labor force. Although the impact of nonhousehold member caregiving was insignificant, evidence of an effect was stronger when commitment of caregiving time was greater. Projections of female labor force participation rates should account for potential increases in caregiving demand due to the aging of the U.S. population.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Anthropometry of an aging work force.

Faced with an aging labor force, industrial planners are worried about the possible need to redesign jobs and workspaces in the future. One area of concern is the changes that occur in body size characteristics as people age. Although no true database for the anthropometry of the American worker exists, available surveys and studies that include older individuals (40 to 70 years), and errors associated with these studies, are discussed. Using sample mean values from selected cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, the changes in weight and selected body dimensions are traced from the third to the eighth decade of life. As a practical exercise, age-associated changes in a number of workspace dimensions are tested against recommended design values for seated work stations. While acknowledging the need for flexibility in future workplace designs the authors conclude that age-related changes in body size are insufficient in themselves to justify the resizing of existing ergonomically-designed workplaces.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Women's roles and family formation in Venezuela: new forms of consensual unions?

This paper assesses the effects of changes in women's education and labor force participation on nuptiality patterns and their implications for fertility decline in Venezuela. Results show that together with delays in union formation, changes in women's education and labor force participation produced a different, more "modern" type of consensual union, which coexists with "traditional" consensual unions. "Traditional" consensual unions remain a substitute for formal marriage among women from rural origins with low levels of education and higher levels of work experience. "Modern" consensual unions appear to be an option for well-educated women of urban origins. As in developed countries, these unions assume the form of a trial period before marriage or an alternative to singlehood. "Modern" consensual unions are more unstable than "traditional" consensual unions and they are associated with lower fertility.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

American education: the challenge of change.

The American education system is being challenged to raise the academic achievement of students to prepare them for the jobs of the future. Yet many demographic, as well as economic and social factors, are making the task more difficult. Low birth rates, especially among non-Hispanic whites, along with high immigration rates, have increased the share of minority and non-English students in public schools. The rise in single-parent families has increased the number of poor students and migration from the cities to the suburbs has concentrated poor and minority students in inner city schools. These same children will make up a greater share of the future labor force. At the same time, the aging of the general population may lessen the commitment of homeowners- -whose taxes pay between 1/3 and 1/2 of education costs. The aging labor force may bring a shortage of qualified teachers, particularly in specialized subject areas. Poor and minority students generally have below average academic skills and are more likely to drop out of high school than non-minority students. However, the skills of American students rank below those of most other industrialized nations, calling into question the ability of Americans to succeed in an increasingly international economic system. How can schools be improved and minority student achievement be enhanced? Reforms of education finance systems, court-ordered integration, and stiffer requirements for teachers and for graduation from high school are among many attempts to meet the immense challenges faced by American schools.

Achievement↗
PubMed1996

Sociodemographic perspectives on pregnant women at work.

In this article, we review trends in the employment of American women in both the civilian labor force and the military over the course of the 20th century, with a particular emphasis given to the years after World War II. The occupational distribution of women in the civilian labor force and in the military is examined with consideration given to the hazards these female-dominated jobs may pose for workers. Finally, we briefly discuss several simple steps that can be taken to reduce the risk of occupational hazards to women's health while remaining within the federal legislative mandates granting women full access to employment.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Disentangling the effects of disability status and gender on the labor supply of Anglo, black, and Latino older workers.

Utilizing data from the 1991 Health and Retirement Study Early Release File, this article examines the effects of disability status on labor force participation and earnings of preretirement workers aged 50 to 64. Results from our hierarchical regression models suggest that poor health and the presence of a work disability significantly reduced the labor force participation and earnings of older men and women. These analyses also suggest that economic well-being was constrained by the costs associated with additional "minority statuses." For example, the odds of being employed were reduced by approximately 46% for black men with disabilities. Further, the earnings of black men were 17% lower than the earnings of their nondisabled counterparts.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1990

Population dynamics of the United States and the Soviet Union.

Population growth in the United States and the Soviet Union is slowing. Since the 1970s, labor force growth in both countries is slowing even more than population growth, and both countries are aging. Economic effects of slowing growth can be compensated for by increased participation in the labor force and increased productivity and by adjustments in the military forces. Economic flexibility and policy choices will determine how successfully the trend to slower population growth will be accommodated.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Employment, child care, and mental health of mothers caring for children assisted by technology.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines 1) the way that children with chronic conditions are cared for at home and assisted by technology affects maternal employment and child care; 2) the social and clinical factors associated with the decision of a mother to quit employment to care for a child at home; and 3) the way in which care at home and the decision of a mother to quit a job affects maternal mental health. DESIGN: The 6-month postdischarge status of 70 mothers of children assisted by technology (study group) was compared with the 6-month postdischarge status of 58 mothers of children (matched for age and gender) hospitalized for acute illnesses (comparison group). Between January and December 1993, we gathered information on sociodemographic status, employment status and changes in employment, severity of the child's condition, child care and nursing services at home, family support, and maternal mental health. RESULTS: One third of mothers in the study group reported that they quit employment to take care of a child at home with only 37.1% remaining employed outside the home, compared with 69.0% of comparison group mothers. Single caretakers were 15 times more likely to quit employment compared with mothers in two-parent families. Availability of child care had an independent effect on a mother's decision to quit a job, whereas the severity of the child's condition did not. Child care hours were significantly lower in study group families and were provided mostly by relatives compared with day-care facilities and regular babysitters in comparison families. Family support was highest among employed mothers in both the study and the comparison groups and lowest in study group mothers who were neither employed currently nor before the child's illness or who had quit employment to care for the child. Family income was significantly lower in families with a child assisted by technology. Families in the study group had 20-fold higher uncompensated health care costs than did the comparison group. Mothers caring for a child assisted by technology reported less good mental health than did comparison group mothers, and employment seems to mediate this relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Caring for a child assisted by technology seems to create barriers to maternal employment diminishing family resources at a time when financial needs actually may increase. Lack of family support and child care services increase the likelihood that mothers of children assisted by technology will stay out of the labor force. Remaining employed buffers the negative effects of care at home on maternal mental health. Health policies for children with chronic health problems should address issues of financial burdens and the labor force participation of their caretakers.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed1982

The health of very early retirees.

This study examines the health of a sample representative of 1.8 million men aged 45-59 in 1969 who permanently withdrew from the labor force before age 62 between 1966-1975. The analysis concentrates on comparing the health of men receiving Social Security disability benefits with that of men reporting work-limiting health conditions at labor force withdrawal but not receiving Social Security disability benefits. The data suggest that the health of these groups is more similar than dissimilar. The major policy implication of the study is that consideration should be given to liberalizing the eligibility criteria for the Social Security and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) disability programs as they apply to older workers.

Black or African American↗
PubMed2000

Determinants of engagement in paid work following social security benefit receipt among older women.

Work behavior among older men approaching or following retirement has received considerable research attention over the past two decades, but research on older women's work behavior is still in its incipient stage. Based on data from the 1982 New Beneficiary Survey (NBS) and the 1991 New Beneficiary Follow-up (NBF), this study analyzes the extent and determinants of employment among women who received their first Social Security benefits between 1980 and 1981. More than one fourth of the women continued to work or rejoined the labor force following their first Social Security benefit receipt. Financial need was found to be the primary reason for and the most significant determinant of women's continuing work or (re)entry into the labor force. But the level of education, health, spouse's work status, and previous work history were also found to be significant determinants of the likelihood and duration of their employment following Social Security receipt.

Aged↗
PubMed1987

Johnson v. Transportation Agency, 25 March 1987.

The plaintiff challenged an affirmative action plan adopted by the defendant employer which took into consideration sex as one factor in promotion. The plan had been voluntarily adopted by the defendant and was intended to achieve a statistically measurable yearly improvement in hiring and promoting minorities and women in job classifications where they were underrepresented in order to obtain a work force whose composition reflected the proportion of minorities and women in the area labor force. While setting no quotas, it required that short-range goals be established and annually adjusted. Under it, the plaintiff who was rated as well qualified as a woman applicant was passed over in favor of the woman applicant. The Court upheld the plan and its practice of taking sex into consideration as one factor in promotion. It ruled that the plan represented a moderate, flexible, case-by-case approach to effecting a gradual improvement in the representation of minorities and women in the defendant's work force and was not in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex.

Americas↗
PubMed2004

The economic impact of chronic fatigue syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a chronic incapacitating illness that affects between 400,000 and 800,000 Americans. Despite the disabling nature of this illness, scant research has addressed the economic impact of CFS either on those affected or on the national economy. METHODS: We used microsimulation methods to analyze data from a surveillance study of CFS in Wichita, Kansas, and derive estimates of productivity losses due to CFS. RESULTS: We estimated a 37% decline in household productivity and a 54% reduction in labor force productivity among people with CFS. The annual total value of lost productivity in the United States was $9.1 billion, which represents about $20,000 per person with CFS or approximately one-half of the household and labor force productivity of the average person with this syndrome. CONCLUSION: Lost productivity due to CFS was substantial both on an individual basis and relative to national estimates for other major illnesses. CFS resulted in a national productivity loss comparable to such losses from diseases of the digestive, immune and nervous systems, and from skin disorders. The extent of the burden indicates that continued research to determine the cause and potential therapies for CFS could provide substantial benefit both for individual patients and for the nation.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1989

Economic predictors of mental health service utilization: a time-series analysis.

This research was designed to understand the relationships between economic indicators and mental health service utilization. Six monthly and three quarterly time-series analyses were done to assess the time-dependent association between three state-level economic indices and two measures of mental health service utilization. Consistent with the existing literature, increases in manufacturing employment were inversely related to both first admissions in state hospitals and case openings in community outpatient facilities. Labor force participation was also inversely related to first admissions to state hospitals. No relationship was found between service employment and either of the mental health service use indices. The specific findings suggest that two processes may be operating in the relationship of labor force participation and manufacturing employment with mental health service utilization. Some of the findings suggest a "crisis" process, in which service use increases rapidly following an economic stressor, whereas other findings suggest a more insidious process, in which economic stressors slowly weaken the mental health of the community and eventually lead to increased mental health service use. These results can be used to better inform social policy and preventive interventions by highlighting the human costs of changes in economic well-being. The need for more ecological research is discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1992

The career status of deaf women. A comparative look.

Discrepancies in labor force, occupation, and earnings outcomes were observed between men and women in a follow-up study of 4,900 deaf high school graduates who had responded to annual surveys conducted from 1982 to 1989. Reasons for the disparities were sought by further examination of the postsecondary programs undertaken, degrees earned, labor force activities, jobs held, and socioeconomic status. Despite efforts to expand career awareness and postsecondary programs for deaf people, deaf women continue to pursue a relatively narrow range of programs, leading to stereotypical female careers. Moreover, when women earn less than a bachelor's degree, they experience high underemployment and unemployment relative to deaf men and hearing peers. Without concerted intervention, this condition may be exacerbated as the labor market demands that workers be more professionally and technically trained in career areas where deaf females are yet underrepresented.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Occupational health and safety in Finland.

The tradition of Finnish legislation on occupational health and safety began 180 years ago. The renewal cycle of the principal acts has been about 20 to 30 years. At present the Finnish occupational health and safety legislation meets the Scandinavian standard well, though the structure of the Finnish legislation meets the Scandinavian standard well, though the structure of the Finnish legislation is more fragmented. The organization and manpower resources of occupational health and safety comprise more than 100,000 persons (5% of the labor force), and the number of full-time experts is about 3,600. The finances amount to 0.3% of the gross national product. Although intensive reforms for strengthening legislation, research, and practice were carried out during the 1970s, one-third of the labor force still works under daily health and safety risks. Several occupational and nonoccupational risk consequences cummulate into one and the same high risk population. Accident risk still remains the most prevalent and severe type of risk in the Finnish work environment. Three major national programs (National Occupational Health and Safety Program, National Occupational Health Service Program and National Program for Science Policy) were established so that the needs of occupational health and safety can be met. The programs are designed to respond not only to current problems, but also to those which can be expected in the future (caused, eg, by the large-scale implementation of new technology).

Accident Prevention↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Prioritizing ergonomic research in aging for the 21st century American workforce.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that by 2008 Americans aged 55 and over will represent the greatest annual growth rate and will occupy 30% of the American population. Additionally, by 2008 civilian labor force participation rates for the 55 and older group will grow to 36.8%, a 6.5% increase over the participation rates for this group for 1996, with the 55 to 64 age group expected to add 7.3 million workers. The predicted median age of the labor force for 2008 is estimated at 40.7 years, an age not approached because the median age peaked at 40.5 years in 1962. Coupled with this aging profile, employment in professional specialty occupations will increase the fastest and add the most jobs in the decade leading to 2008. Within the professional specialty professions, the majority of the employment increases are expected to occur in the service industry division. The purpose of this paper is to merge demographic data with ergonomic and human factors data and predictions to explore areas of ergonomic research that will aid in keeping the aging workforce, and those with whom they interact, healthy in their jobs and keep the companies for whom they are employed competitive. Although some ergonomics research has been conducted in all the listed areas of expected growth, the paper reexamines the job demands in each sector, with a focus on the needs of the aging workforce.

Aging↗
PubMed1986

American Indian migration and economic opportunities.

This article examines interstate migration and labor force participation among White, American Indian, and intermarried Indian/White couples in the US. The results show that endogamous American Indian couples are much less likely to change states of residence than are the other 2 groups of couples. The effect of interstate migration on labor force participation does not vary across the 3 groups of couples. The implications of these results for the assimilation and internal colonial models of race relations and for federal Indian policy are discussed

Americas↗
PubMed2001

Productivity losses associated with diabetes in the US.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to estimate the cost of productivity losses in the U.S. attributable to diabetes, with regard to specific demographic and disease-related characteristics in the U.S.. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We used the 1989 National Health Interview Survey, a random survey of individuals in the U.S. that included a diabetes supplement. Data on individuals were obtained for labor force participation, hours of work, demographic and occupational characteristics, self-reported health status, and several variables that indicated the presence, duration, and severity (complications) of diabetes. Using multivariate regression analyses, we estimated the association of independent variables (e.g., demographics, health, and diabetes status) with labor force participation, hours of work lost, and the economic value of lost work attributable to diabetes and its complications and duration. RESULTS: In general, the presence of diabetes and complications were found to be related to workforce participation variables. The magnitude of the lost-productivity costs depended on personal characteristics and on the presence and status of diabetes. In general, the loss of yearly earnings amounted to about a one-third reduction in earnings and ranged from $3,700 to $8,700 per annum. CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes has a considerable net effect on earnings, and the complications and duration of diabetes have compound effects. Our findings have implications for the cost-effectiveness of diabetes control; the presence of complicating factors is the single most important predictive factor in lost productivity costs attributable to diabetes, and thus the avoidance or retardation of complications will have an impact on indirect health-related costs.

Adult↗