[Correlation of menarche with age and various somatometric indexes].
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Adipose Tissue↗
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Mitochondrial uncoupler BAM15 attenuates cryopreservation-induced damage in human sperm by stabilizing mitochondrial homeostasis†.
Human sperm cryopreservation is essential for sperm banking and assisted reproduction, yet freeze-thaw stress promotes oxidative injury that reduces motility and damages the acrosome and nuclear DNA. Here, we tested whether the mitochondrial uncoupler BAM15 improves post-thaw human sperm quality and examined mechanisms linked to mitochondrial homeostasis. Ejaculates were cryopreserved using a standard protocol supplemented with graded concentrations of BAM15. After thawing, total and progressive motility and viability were assessed. Flow cytometry quantified the DNA fragmentation index and the proportion of high DNA stainability cells. Mitochondrial membrane potential, intracellular reactive oxygen species, and lipid peroxidation were measured to evaluate mitochondrial function and oxidative status. Ultrastructural preservation of the acrosome, plasma membrane, midpiece mitochondria, and flagellar axoneme was examined by transmission electron microscopy. Compared with untreated controls, BAM15 increased total and progressive motility and improved viability. BAM15 reduced DNA fragmentation and decreased high DNA stainability, indicating enhanced genomic integrity. Consistently, BAM15 improved mitochondrial membrane potential while suppressing intracellular reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, supporting attenuation of freeze-thaw oxidative damage. Transmission electron microscopy further revealed more continuous acrosomal and plasma membranes, fewer swollen or vacuolated midpiece mitochondria, and improved preservation of axonemal architecture. Collectively, these findings identify BAM15 as a promising cryopreservation supplement that stabilizes mitochondrial homeostasis and improves the functional and structural quality of human sperm after thawing.
Humans↗
Effects of tamoxifen on the serum leptin level in patients with breast cancer.
BACKGROUND: Leptin is a peptide hormone that has a role in the regulation of body weight and has effects on metabolic, neuroendocrine, reproductive and hematopoietic systems. Breast cancer has also been associated with obesity and reproductive hormones, especially estradiol. Only a few studies have investigated the relation between plasma leptin and risk of breast cancer and only one study evaluated the effect of tamoxifen on leptin levels in patients with breast cancer. METHODS: We investigated serum leptin levels in gender-, body mass index (BMI)- and age-matched breast cancer patients and healthy individuals (58 of each). RESULTS: Serum leptin levels were measured by radioimmunoassay (Human Leptin RIA Kit). Serum leptin levels in the breast cancer patients were significantly higher than those in the control group (27.00 versus 17.65 ng/ml, p = 0.019). There were no differences with respect to BMI and age between control and breast cancer patients. There were no significant differences in BMI and leptin levels between pre- and postmenopausal patients (27.00 +/- 1.39 and 27.19 +/- 0.81 kg/m(2), 26.81 +/- 6.25 and 27.06 +/- 2.98 ng/ml) (p > 0.05). We found no difference in serum leptin level between early and late stages of patients (22.38 versus 31.30 ng/ml, p = 0.086). However, the serum leptin level in patients using tamoxifen was significantly higher than that of patients not using tamoxifen (32.71 and 19.39 ng/ml, respectively p = 0.009). There was no correlation between CA 15-3 and leptin level (r = 0.069, p = 0.610). CONCLUSION: High serum leptin levels seen in breast cancer patients are not related to stage of the disease or to cancer itself but may be associated with the use of tamoxifen.
Adult↗
Expression of functional human chorionic gonadotropin/human luteinizing hormone receptor gene in human uterine arteries.
The present study investigated 1) whether extra- and intramyometrial arteries contain hCG/human LH receptor messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and receptor protein, 2) whether hCG can bind to its vascular receptors and regulate the formation of vasoactive eicosanoids, and 3) whether hCG administration for ovulation induction can affect the vascular resistance in uterine arteries. The uterine arteries contain multiple hCG/LH receptor mRNA transcripts in endothelial and smooth muscle cells. The uterine arteries also contain an 80-kilodalton immunoreactive receptor protein in endothelial and smooth muscle cells. The extra- and intramyometrial arteries and an 80-kilodalton receptor protein bind [125I]hCG, which is inhibited by excess unlabeled hCG. The receptor mRNA, receptor protein, and ligand binding are higher in smaller intramyometrial arteries than in larger extramyometrial arteries. Incubation of uterine arteries with highly purified hCG resulted in a dose-dependent increase in immunoreactive cyclooxygenase-1, cyclooxygenase-2, prostacyclin synthase, and 6-keto-prostaglandin-F1 alpha and a decrease in prostaglandin-E2, thromboxane-A2 synthase, and thromboxane-B2. There was a significant decrease in the resistance index in uterine arteries, but not in common carotid arteries, by 16 h after the administration of 10,000 IU hCG for ovulation induction in women. This decrease is positively correlated with serum hCG levels, but not with progesterone or estradiol levels. In summary, these data, demonstrating the expression of functional hCG/LH receptors in human uterine arteries, are novel and may have important implications for physiological uterine blood flow regulation, reproductive failure, and obstetrical hemorrhage.
Adult↗
Citation classics in Fertility and sterility, 1975-2004.
The Science Citation Index of the Institute for Scientific Information was searched to identify the 102 most frequently cited articles in the Fertility and Sterility journal for the past 30 years. Identification of the citation classic articles provides resourceful perspectives on the evolution of Fertility and Sterility and reproductive medicine.
Bibliometrics↗
Clinical significance of human sperm-zona pellucida binding.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between sperm morphology and motion parameters and sperm-zona pellucida (ZP) binding capacity under hemizona assay (HZA) conditions and to determine the discriminatory power of the HZA for the prediction of in vitro sperm fertilizing ability. DESIGN: Prospectively designed study. SETTING: Academic tertiary centers. PATIENT(S): One hundred ninety-six couples undergoing IVF therapy participated in this study. INTERVENTION(S): Hemizona assay and IVF results were determined for each couple. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Computerized sperm motion analysis, sperm morphology (strict) criteria), and HZA results were correlated with fertilization outcome. RESULT(S): Among sperm parameters from the original ejaculates, morphology was the best predictor of sperm-ZP binding ability; hyperactivated motility was the best predictor of HZA results after swim-up separation of the motile sperm fractions. The HZA index provided the highest discriminatory power for fertilization success/failure, with an overall accuracy of 86%. CONCLUSION(S): Sperm morphology and hyperactivated motility showed a high correlation with the capacity of sperm to achieve tight binding to the ZP. The excellent positive and negative predictive values of the HZA for fertilization outcome provide additional support for the use of this functional bioassay in the decision-making process within the assisted reproduction setting.
Female↗
[Contribution of ovarian and uterine color Doppler in medically assisted reproduction techniques (ART)].
Along the menstrual cycle and during pregnancy, small blood vessels proliferate within the uterus and the ovulating ovary. Angiogenic factors such as VEGF are involved in this phenomenon. In the ovulating ovary, neo-angiogenesis spreads progressively inside the dominant follicle wall and plays a role in the maintenance of the corpus luteum, under the influence of LH (or HCG during pregnancy). In ART, the measure of the blood flow is interesting since it correlates to the number and quality of harvested oocytes. Follicle hypoxia may impair chromosomal organization and separation within the oocyte. This neo-angiogenesis is also important in endometrium, in particular for embryo implantation. Ultrasounds with Doppler allow to estimate the endometrial receptivity, especially in IVF cycles. It is assumed that chance for ongoing pregnancy is almost zero if: endometrial thickness is < 8 mm; uterine pulsatility index (PI) is > 3. Doppler ultrasounds are a useful and even mandatory complement to standard vaginal ultrasonoghraphy in ART. It can be viewed as an indicator of the endometrial and follicular "well-being".
Endometrium↗
Reproductive outcome after laparoscopic treatment of minimal and mild endometriosis using Helica Thermal Coagulator.
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the reproductive outcome following Helica Thermal Coagulator (Helica TC) in an infertile population with early-stage endometriosis. DESIGN: A clinical observational trial conducted in a NHS tertiary referral centre for treatment of endometriosis. Forty-four healthy infertile women (mean age 21 years, range 18-34 years) with laparoscopically confirmed diagnosis of minimal (stage I) or mild (stage II) endometriosis were included. All visible endometriotic lesions and adhesions were treated using Helica TC at the same time of diagnostic laparoscopy. Following laparoscopy, women attempted to conceive spontaneously and were followed for 12 months or until delivery. No hormonal therapy for endometriosis was given whatsoever. RESULTS: One woman was lost to follow-up and the remaining 43 women were considered in the final analysis. The cumulative pregnancy rate was 23.2% (10/43). All pregnancies occurred spontaneously and neither miscarriages nor ectopic pregnancies were observed. Pregnancy rate did not differ between women with stage I and those with stage II endometriosis. The time-to-pregnancy was similar in women with different stage endometriosis. No surgical complications were encountered. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that Helica TC is a simple and safe conservative laparoscopic surgery for early-stage endometriosis. Helica TC appears to improve reproductive outcome in women with otherwise unexplained infertility. Large RCTs are needed to define these preliminary data.
Adult↗
Physical activity and breast cancer risk in hispanic and non-hispanic white women.
To investigate breast cancer risk in Hispanic and non-Hispanic White women, the authors conducted a population-based case-control study of New Mexican women during 1992-1994 using incident breast cancer cases aged 35-74 years and frequency-matched controls selected using random digit dialing. Activity type and weekly duration of usual nonoccupational physical activity were used to calculate weekly metabolic equivalent (MET)-hours of total and vigorous physical activity (> or =5 METs). Conditional logistic regression models were fitted to estimate the relative risk of breast cancer for levels of physical activity and to assess the difference in effects by ethnicity, body mass index, energy intake, and menopausal status. Vigorous physical activity was associated with reduced breast cancer risk in both Hispanic and non-Hispanic White women. Women in the highest category of vigorous activity had lower risk of breast cancer (adjusted odds ratio = 0.34, 95% confidence interval: 0.22, 0.51 for Hispanic; adjusted odds ratio = 0.60, 95% confidence interval: 0.41, 0.89 for non-Hispanic White women) compared with women reporting no vigorous physical activity. Both pre- and postmenopausal Hispanic women showed decreasing risk with increasing level of activity. Physical activity was protective only among postmenopausal non-Hispanic White women. The effects of physical activity were independent from reproductive factors, usual body mass index, body mass index at age 18, adult weight gain, and total energy intake.
Adult↗
Socioeconomic status differences in hormone therapy.
Socioeconomic status (SES) is a significant sociodemographic correlate of noncontraceptive hormone therapy, yet multiple dimensions of SES have not been examined systematically in previous studies of hormone therapy. This study examined the lifetime incidence of noncontraceptive hormone therapy, how usage varied by type of reproductive organ surgery, and the bivariate and net associations between a large array of SES indicators and the likelihood of ever using hormones by age 53-54 years in a population sample (n = 3,612) of non-Hispanic white female participants in the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (1957-1993). Approximately half of the women had ever used noncontraceptive hormones; 38.5% were current users. In multivariate logistic regression analyses, the most robust SES predictor of hormone therapy was a woman's husband's occupational status (higher status associated with higher rates of use), after adjustment for all other measured sociologic and biomedical factors (e.g., other SES measures, other health behaviors, menopausal symptoms, age at menopause, health insurance). The association of hormone therapy with education differed between women who underwent hysterectomy and/or oophorectomy (higher odds for less educated women) and those with intact reproductive organs (lower odds for less educated women). Additionally, a woman's own earnings and household net worth were positive net correlates of noncontraceptive hormone therapy.
Body Mass Index↗
Familial risks and reproductive fitness in schizophrenia.
Recently published data from the Roscommon Family Study show that a parental diagnosis of schizotypal disorder (SPD) has a significant and specific impact on the risk for schizophrenia in siblings of index probands with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. The distribution patterns of risks for schizophrenia and SPD in parents were of opposite magnitude to those of patients' siblings and children. These patterns can be predicted from the diminished reproductive fitness of patients with schizophrenia if subjects with SPD belong in the schizophrenia spectrum but have no diminished fitness. We briefly review how the few available data about the distribution of risks for schizophrenia and SPD among relatives of probands with SPD and the data for their marital status, as a tentative index of reproductive fitness, may support this interpretation. There is some indirect evidence that, unlike what is usually reported for people with schizophrenia, reproductive fitness may not be diminished in SPD. This might partially account for the opposite patterns of distribution of risks for schizophrenia and SPD in families.
Adult↗
Correlates of age at natural menopause in the cohorts of EPIC-Italy.
A large number of studies have investigated the factors correlated to age at natural menopause in several populations. However, information on genetics and life-style factors influencing the age of onset of menopause in different populations is of current scientific interest. Specifically, for Italian women there are no large population-based data. The EPIC-Italy collaboration is a source of data of this kind; moreover, the geographical distribution of the cohorts (recruited in northern, central and southern Italy) is an added value as regards the scientific interest of these data. A number of biological and life-style-related factors have been analyzed to evaluate their association to the age at natural menopause in 14,454 menopausal women of the EPIC-Italy collaboration. As regards life-style and environmental factors, the main results are: a) women living in different areas of the country have different ages of onset of natural menopause; b) educational level is significantly associated to this age and may explain part of the between-center difference; c) cigarette smoking appears as a major correlate and probably determinant of the age at natural menopause across all the Italian cohorts; d) alcohol consumption does not have any relationship with the age at natural menopause; e) the use of oral contraceptives may influence age at natural menopause. As regards biological factors, short cycles and low parity have been found associated with earlier menopause. Overall, the results concerning menstrual cycles, parity, and cigarette smoking are consistent with the hypothesis that the number of oocytes in the ovary is pre-determined and any acceleration or impairment of the ovarian function leads to reduce the duration of the reproductive life.
Aging↗
Decrease in gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse frequency with aging in postmenopausal women.
UNLABELLED: Increasing evidence suggests that aging is associated with dynamic changes in the hypothalamic and pituitary components of the reproductive axis that are independent of changes in gonadal hormone secretion. This study was designed to determine the effect of age on GnRH pulse frequency in women in the absence of gonadal feedback using gonadotropin free alpha-subunit (FAS) and LH as neuroendocrine markers of endogenous GnRH secretion. All studies were performed in healthy, euthyroid postmenopausal women (PMW) during daytime hours. The impact of sampling interval and duration on assessment of pulse frequency in PMW was first examined in 10 women with a mean age of 61.6 +/- 8 yr (mean +/- SD), in whom blood was sampled every 5 min for 12 h. Each 5-min series was then reduced to simulate a 10-min series and then a 15-min series for pulse analysis, and the effect of 8 h compared with 12 h of sampling was determined. To define the changes in the frequency and amplitude of pulsatile hormone secretion with aging, 11 younger (45-55 yr) and 11 older (70-80 yr) PMW were then studied over 8 h at a 5-min sampling interval. In the initial series, the mean interpulse intervals (IPIs) for FAS were 53.8 +/- 3.6, 69.2 +/- 3.9, and 87.6 +/- 7.3 min at sampling intervals of 5, 10, and 15 min, respectively (P < 0.0005). The LH IPI also increased progressively with sampling intervals of 5, 10, and 15 min (54.4 +/- 2.5, 70.4 +/- 2.3, and 91.1 +/- 4.4 min; P < 0.0001). At the 5-min sampling interval, the calculated number of pulses/24 h was not different between a 12-h series compared with an 8-h series for either FAS or LH. In the second series of studies, the older PMW had lower gonadotropin levels (LH, 86.5 +/- 8.8 vs. 51.3 +/- 7.7 IU/L, P < 0.01; FSH, 171.6 +/- 16.9 vs. 108.2 +/- 10.5 IU/L, P < 0.005; FAS, 1021.5 +/- 147.4 vs. 425.6 +/- 89.6 ng/L, P < 0.005, in younger and older PMW, respectively) despite no differences in estrone or estradiol levels. The older PMW also demonstrated a slower FAS pulse frequency compared with their younger counterparts, as reflected in an increased FAS IPI (52.6 +/- 3.1 and 70.6 +/- 5.9 min; P < 0.002). The difference in IPIs between younger and older PMW was not statistically significant for LH (65.4 +/- 5.6 and 71.8 +/- 6.6 min for younger and older PMW, respectively). FAS pulse amplitude was decreased in older PMW compared with younger PMW (431.7 +/- 66.2 vs. 224.6 +/- 81.9 ng/L; P < 0.01), whereas the decrease in LH pulse amplitude with age was of borderline statistical significance (23.2 +/- 3.1 vs. 15.9 +/- 2.1 IU/L; P = 0.09). IN CONCLUSION: 1) the use of a 5-min sampling interval and measurement of FAS as the primary marker of GnRH pulse generator activity indicate that GnRH pulse frequency in younger PMW is faster than previously reported, but not increased over that seen in the late follicular phase and midcycle surge in women with intact ovarian function; and 2) the marked decrease in FAS pulse frequency with age provides evidence of age-related changes in the hypothalamic component of the reproductive axis that are independent of changes in gonadal function.
Activity Cycles↗
Body mass index and age at menarche in Peruvian children living at high altitude and at sea level.
The present study was designed to determine the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and age at menarche in girls (aged 10-19 years) living in Lima (150 m) and in Cerro de Pasco (4340 m above sea level). The purpose of the study was to determine whether the relationships between BMI and both age at menarche and chronological age differ between girls living at low and at high altitude. The ratio weight/height (the Benn index) was used in the present study as a variant of BMI because the exponent minimizes the relationship with height and maximizes the relationship with weight. From 10 to 16 years of age the Benn index of highlander girls was lower than that for girls at sea level, but at 17-19 years the differences disappeared. A later age at menarche was observed at high altitude than at sea level after controlling for socioeconomic status and for the Benn index. The value of the Benn index at the time of menarche, after controlling for chronological age in the analysis, was significantly higher at high altitude than at sea level. It was also observed that the higher the chronological age, the lower the value of the Benn index at the time of menarche. Using the median ages at menarche in Lima and in Cerro de Pasco, we found that a higher Benn index at the time of menarche is still observed at high altitude compared with girls from sea level. In Lima body weight and height were directly related to age at menarche (p < 0.001 and p < 0.005, respectively), whereas in Cerro de Pasco only weight was related to age at menarche (p < 0.001). The value of body weight at the time of menarche, after controlling for height in the analysis, was significantly higher at high altitude than at sea level. The stepwise multiple regression analysis of data from 93 girls having menarche at the time of or at most one month before the study showed that weight and altitude x height are predictors of age at menarche. These data suggest that age at menarche has an effect on both age and the Benn index acting independently and that later age at menarche in girls from Cerro de Pasco is an independent effect of altitude. Because the Benn index for menarche was different at sea level and at high altitude, we conclude that regression equations to predict age at menarche must include altitude as an independent variable.
Adolescent↗
Time-related trends of age at menopause and reproductive period of women in a Chuvashian rural population.
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine in an observational, cross-sectional, community-based study the secular trend of age at menopause among women in a rural Chuvashian population and to identify factors associated with age at menopause. DESIGN: The sample included 316 postmenopausal women born between 1920 and 1950 with mean age at menopause of 48.47 +/- 4.63 (34-58) years. Statistical analyses included simple and multiple linear regression and "whiskers" plots. RESULTS: Significant association was found between year of birth and age at menopause (beta = 0.194, P < 0.001) and reproduction period (P = 0.193, P < 0.001). Mean values of age at menopause increased from 47.0 years (born during 1920-1925) to maximal values of 49.7 years (born during 1940-1945) and 49.3 years (born during 1945-1950). Mean values of their reproductive period increased from 30.7 (born during 1920-1925) to maximal values of 34.1 (born during 1940-1945) and to 33.7 (born during 1945-1950). Multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated that year of birth was the only statistically significant (P = 0.19, P < 0.01) predictor of age at menopause. Age at menarche can also be a possible predictor of age at menopause (beta = -0.12, P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: The study confirmed certain secular trends of age at menopause and reproductive periods in Chuvashian women. The authors also observed a negative association between age at menarche and age at menopause. The number of children and medical abortions as well as body mass index showed no association with age at menopause.
Adult↗
Uterine arterial embolization for the treatment of uterine leiomyomas.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to establish guidelines for using uterine artery embolization for the treatment of uterine leiomyomas accompanied by adenomyosis in Korea. This study was performed to investigate 1) the effects of uterine embolization on leiomyoma accompanied by adenomyosis, 2) the outcome of uterine embolization according to the embolization materials used, 3) the relationship between the Resistance Index (RI) and the change in uterine volume. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective study on 37 women who had uterine leiomyomas accompanied by adenomyosis. Bilateral uterine artery embolization was performed over a period of 17 months in 37 patients (age range 25 - 65) experiencing pain, hypermenorrhea, urinary frequency, etc. due to leiomyomas. Ultrasound imaging was performed before the procedure and at mean 6.9 months after the procedure. RESULTS: All procedures were technically successful. Mean clinical follow-up time was 12.8 months. Minor complications occurred in 82% patients following the procedure. After follow-up imaging, the median uterine volume decreased by 34.4% and the dominant myoma volume decreased by 86%. There was no statistical difference in the uterine volume reduction and the dominant myoma size reduction, whether the occluding agent was polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl alcohol plus gelfoam, or gelfoam, and whether the ultrasound measured Resistance Index value before the procedure was low or high. CONCLUSION: Primary candidates for uterine artery embolization include those with symptomatic uterine leiomyomas, who no longer desire fertility, but who wish to avoid surgery or are poor surgical risks. According to the results of our study, adenomyosis should not be considered as a contraindication for uterine artery embolization. However, because little data is available about the subsequent reproductive potential following this procedure, it should not be routinely advocated for infertile women. Further investigation is warranted regarding the choice of occluding agent and the role of the Resistance Index.
Adult↗
Seroprevalence of human herpesvirus 8 among Zambian women of childbearing age without Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) and mother-child pairs with KS.
The seroprevalence of human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) among a group of Zambian women of reproductive age and among mother-child pairs in which either one of them has Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) was determined. A cross-sectional group of 378 pregnant women was randomly recruited into the study, and 183 (48.4%) had HHV-8 antibodies. Among the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1-infected women, 51.1% were HHV-8-seropositive, whereas of HIV-1-negative women, 47.3% were HHV-8-seropositive. In addition, 21 women index patients with KS and 5 young children index patients with KS were studied. All children with KS had mothers who were HHV-8-seropositive, while not all children whose mothers had KS were infected with HHV-8. Our study suggests that there is a high HHV-8 seroprevalence among Zambian women, and the rate is almost the same in HIV-1-positive and -negative women. This high seroprevalence may be a contributing factor toward the increased frequency of KS in this population.
Adolescent↗
Elevated leptin concentrations in pregnancy and lactation: possible role as a modulator of substrate utilization.
Energy needs are increased during pregnancy and lactation. These increased energy needs may be met through partitioning of nutrients for energy utilization which is under hormonal control. The objective of the present studies was to determine if changes in plasma leptin occurred during pregnancy and lactation and if the changes were related to prolactin. Plasma leptin and prolactin were measured longitudinally in 9 women through pregnancy and lactation. In a second study, leptin and prolactin were measured 4 days and 28 days postpartum in 21 lactating women. Mean plasma leptin during the three trimesters of pregnancy was significantly higher (29.3+/-2.8 ng/ml) when compared to mean leptin during the three time periods of lactation (19.3+/-3.2 ng/ml) and control groups (9.8+/-1.4 ng/ml). Plasma leptin was elevated early in pregnancy and remained elevated throughout pregnancy. In the second study, the mean plasma leptin in the lactating women was significantly higher 4 days postpartum (17.3+/-3.7 ng/ml) and 28 days postpartum (19.2+/-3.9 ng/ml) when compared to controls (11.6+/-1.2 ng/ml). Prolactin in the control subjects (24+/-4 ng/ml) was significantly lower than in the pregnant (202+/-16 ng/ml) and lactating (108+/-26 ng/ml) groups. Similar observations were made in the second study (controls 20+/-2 ng/ml; lactation 28 days 159+/-21 ng/ml). Leptin during lactation was lower than in pregnancy but higher than control subjects. Regression analysis suggested that BMI and prolactin can be used as predictors of leptin in pregnancy and lactation. The increase in leptin and prolactin early in pregnancy suggests an association between the two hormones. Results of the present studies and research done by other investigators presents a strong role for leptin during pregnancy and lactation. Leptin is regulated by factors other than adiposity especially in reproductive women leading to our hypothesis that there are leptin and prolactin mediated effects on substrates used for energy utilization during pregnancy and lactation.
Adolescent↗