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PubMed1991

Effects of local anesthesia and intravenous naloxone on the changes in behaviour and plasma concentrations of cortisol produced by castration and tail docking with tight rubber rings in young lambs.

The reliability of some behavioral and physiological indices used for the recognition and assessment of acute pain in lambs after castration and tail docking has been examined. Changes in the indices were measured after blocking neural activity with local anaesthetic (lignocaine) and after an opioid antagonist (naloxone) was administered. Six lambs, aged less than one week, were allocated randomly to each of six treatments. (i) control handling and blood sampling; (ii) castration plus tail docking with tight rubber rings; (iii) local anaesthesia; (iv) local anaesthesia followed by castration and tail docking; (v) intravenous naloxone only (0.2 mg kg-1); and (vi) intravenous naloxone followed by castration and tail docking. Local anaesthesia eliminated the behavioural and plasma cortisol changes which usually follow castration and tail docking. Naloxone had a limited effect on the increase in cortisol but altered the behaviour. The results support the view that such indices are useful for assessment of the response to acute pain and that, although endogenous opioids do reduce pain in young lambs after castration and tail docking, the effect is small.

Anesthesia, Local↗
PubMed1976

Androgen metabolism by rat epididymis. 3. Effect of castration and anti-androgens.

The in vivo and in vitro metabolism of 3H-testosterone by rat epididymis and the changes in epididymal weight have been studied after castration and treatment with anti-androgens. The utilization of 3H-testosterone was greatly reduced after castration as was the formation of 5alpha-reduced 17 beta-hydroxy metabolites. The formation of the 17 -keto metabolites was unaffected. Castration had no effect on the ratio between water and ether soluble radioactivity. Administration of testosterone propionate, necessary for giving normal stimulated prostate weight (150 mug/day), restored the metabolism of testosterone to approximately normal values. Estradiol benzoate and progesterone inhibited metabolism of testosterone in vitro and greatly reduced the formation of DHT (17 beta-hydroxy-5alpha-androstan-3-one) and 3 alpha-diol(5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha-17 beta-diol) by experiments both in vivo and in vitro. No effect of cyproterone acetate could be demonstrated on either the in vitro or in vivo metabolism of testosterone. Castration for 14 days reduced the epididymal weight to about 30% of that found in intact animals. Administration of testosterone propionate restored the epididymal weight to about 80% of normal. Estradiol benzoate and cyproterone acetate given to intact rats led to a decrease in the epididymal weight. Progesterone had no such effect. In 14 days castrated rats receiving testosterone propionate all three anti-androgens reduced the weight of the epididymis. In conclusion, our results show that the metabolic conversion of testosterone in epididymis to DHT and 3 alpha-diol is dramatically dependent on the hormonal status of the animal; castration or treatment with anti-androgens causes a reduced formation of the "active" androgens whilst testosterone replacement treatment restores the metabolism of testosterone to normal.

Androgen Antagonists↗
PubMed1987

Effect of partial testosterone replacement or thymosin on anti-DNA in castrated (NZB X NZW)F1 males.

Castration of young (3-week-old) but not older (3-month-old) male (NZB X NZW)F1 mice was associated with autoantibody production similar to that of untreated female littermates. The castration-induced disease provided a unique model for the evaluation of therapeutic modalities during the first 9 months of life. Castrated male (NZB X NZW)F1 mice were treated with either long-term thymosin (fraction 5) or testosterone for different periods of time. Continuous testosterone replacement abolished the autoimmune disease-accelerating effects of castration at 3 weeks. Brief treatment during either the early or the later periods of life of castrated (NZB X NZW)F1 males was insufficient to prevent accelerated anti-DNA production. Thymosin treatment, when started at the time of castration and continued through life, abolished the rise in anti-DNA. These studies suggest that androgens work throughout the first 7 months of life of the mouse to suppress anti-DNA and that lack of androgens for a relatively brief period allows anti-DNA production to be initiated. Once initiated it cannot be completely suppressed. The cellular basis of the fixed aspect of this process is unknown. A possible role of the thymus is suggested by the ability of thymosin to suppress anti-DNA.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

The time for serum testosterone to reach castrate level after bilateral orchiectomy or oral estrogen in the management of metastatic prostatic cancer.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the time for serum testosterone to reach castrate level after bilateral orchiectomy or oral estrogen in the management of metastatic prostatic cancer. METHODS: A total of 20 consecutive patients with adenocarcinoma of the prostate with bony metastasis were enrolled in this study. Their mean age was 72.8 years old (range, 57 to 82 years). Pretreatment serum testosterone levels were obtained in all men. Thirteen men were treated with bilateral orchiectomy. Immediately after removal of testes, serial blood samplings for serum testosterone levels were drawn every fifteen minutes for the first two hours, then hourly for another sixteen hours. Seven men were treated with oral estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES), 3 mg per day. Serum testosterone levels were checked on a weekly basis for two months, and then biweekly for another two months. RESULTS: Castration time of bilateral orchiectomy ranges from three to twelve hours (mean, 8.6 hours). The biological half-life of serum testosterone was from thirty to sixty minutes (mean, 45 minutes). Castration time of oral estrogen (DES) was from twenty-one to sixty days (mean, 38.3 days). CONCLUSIONS: Bilateral orchiectomy and oral estrogen were both effective ways of castration for patients with bony metastatic prostatic cancer. Bilateral orchiectomy provides a more rapid castration and is one hundred seven times faster than oral estrogen in reaching castrate level.

Adenocarcinoma↗
PubMed1993

Decreased tolerance to ethanol-induced hypothermia in long-term castrate male rats.

A potential role for central stores of vasopressin in the development of tolerance was studied in the long-term castrate rat. Vasopressin stores in the septal region are known to be dramatically depressed following long-term castration. Sprague-Dawley male rat littermates were castrated at 26 days of age or given a sham surgery. Experiments began when animals reached 130 days of age. Tolerance to the hypothermic effects of ethanol occurred in intact but not castrate animals over the course of six daily IP injections of 3.0 g/kg ethanol. Both groups exhibited tolerance to the length of time needed to return to baseline temperature over the 6 days of ethanol injections. Tolerance to this effect of ethanol was still evident in intact animals but not castrates following another injection of ethanol 1 week later. No tolerance developed to the rebound hyperthermia that occurred in both groups. Blood ethanol levels did not differ significantly between castrate and intact littermates administered a single dose of ethanol. Overall, these results support the hypothesis that endogenous vasopressin is involved in the development of some aspects of tolerance to ethanol.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Effects of unilateral castration on morphologic characteristics of the testis in one-, two-, and three-year-old stallions.

The effects of unilateral castration on testicular compensatory hypertrophy were measured in 12 Morgan stallions, four each at one, two, and three years of age. They were randomized within age to intact (IN) or unilaterally castrated (UC) groups. Allotment and surgery were in January 1983 and total castration was in June 1983, 150 d after unilateral castration. Testis weight increased linearly with age (P < 0.01) and was increased by unilateral castration (P < 0.07). Epididymal weight also increased linearly with age (P < 0.05) and was heavier in UC animals (P = 0.15). Tubule diameter (P < 0.10) and epithelial height (P < 0.03) were greater in UC than in IN stallions. In conclusion, testes of stallions underwent compensatory hypertrophy after unilateral castration.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1989

Effects of photoperiod, melatonin implants and castration on molting and on plasma thyroxine, testosterone and prolactin levels in the European badger (Meles meles).

1. The seasonal molt, which lasts six months in the badger, begins in mid-July and ends at the beginning of winter. It occurs under natural long-day conditions, following the seasonal drop in plasma testosterone levels, concomitant with high levels of thyroxine and prolactin. 2. To examine the role of the different factors involved (day length, prolactin, thyroxine, testosterone), different groups of badgers, divided into subgroups of castrated or intact animals, were subjected to the influence of long days (20L: 4D), short days (4L:20D) or the effect of subcutaneous melatonin implants. 3. In all cases, castration resulted in a significantly earlier onset of molting 1-3 months, depending on the group, regardless of the experimental conditions (20L:4D, 4L:20D, melatonin). 4. However, molting started earliest in animals subjected to long days, irrespective of whether they were castrated or intact. 5. In the melatonin-implanted badgers, molting started either early (castrated animals), or late or not at all (intact animals). 6. Lastly, in castrated badgers subjected to experimental photoperiods (short days or long days) or melatonin implants, the period of molting was shortened from 6 months (intact outdoor animals) to 4 months. 7. The advance in shedding was always related to an early drop in testosterone (or an absence of testosterone in the castrated animals) and to a higher or earlier increase in thyroxine levels.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Castration affects brain iodomelatonin binding in hamsters maintained in long but not short days.

The effects of castration on 2-[125I]iodomelatonin ([125I]melatonin) binding sites in discrete brain areas were investigated in male Syrian hamsters exposed to long and short days. In hamsters maintained in long days (14 h light: 10 h darkness), castration produced a marked decrease in [125I]melatonin binding in the brain, particularly in the medulla-pons hypothalamus and hippocampus. Maximal response in the medulla-pons and hypothalamus was observed at 3 days; specific [125I]melatonin binding subsequently increased to reach control levels within 30 days after castration. In the hippocampus, the decrease in [125I]melatonin binding was still evident at 90 days after castration and could be reversed by testosterone. Exposure to short days (8 h light: 16 h darkness) did not affect [125I]melatonin binding in the various brain areas of the intact hamsters; even after 90 days when circulating testosterone decreased to castrated levels, the binding remained as in intact, long-day-housed controls. Moreover, [125I]melatonin binding in the various brain areas of hamsters exposed to short days was unaffected by castration. The results clearly indicate that the regulation by testosterone of melatonin receptors in the medulla-pons, hypothalamus and hippocampus of the male hamster depends on the prevailing photoperiod.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Modulation of smooth muscle cell function: morphological evidence for a contractile to synthetic transition in the rat ventral prostate after castration.

In this study, we evaluated the involvement of rat ventral prostate smooth muscle cells (SMC) in secretory activity and whether this function is modulated after castration. Cell morphology was examined at both light and electron microscopy levels and the organelles involved in secretory function were labeled by the zinc-iodide-osmium (ZIO) method at the ultrastructural level and their volume density was determined by stereology. Castration resulted in marked changes of the SMC, which adopted a spinous aspect and abandoned the layered arrangement observed in the prostates of non-castrated rats. The volume density of ZIO reactive organelles increased progressively after castration, reaching significantly higher levels 21 days after castration. Since previous studies have demonstrated that SMC express SMC markers (even 21 days after castration) and are able to respond to adrenergic stimulation, we concluded that differentiated SMC are able to shift from a predominantly contractile to a more synthetic phenotype without changing their differentiation status.

Androgens↗
PubMed2004

Effect of cortisol infusion patterns and castration on metabolic and immunological indices of stress response in cattle.

This study tested the hypotheses that: (1) either acute stress induced by Burdizzo castration, or cortisol infusion would modulate plasma glucose, insulin and growth hormone (GH) concentrations; and (2) immune modulation induced by cortisol would be dependent on the pattern, intensity and duration of circulating cortisol concentrations. Fifty 9.2-month-old Holstein x Friesian bulls (232 +/- 2.0 kg) were blocked by weight and randomly assigned to one of five treatments (n = 10 per treatment): (1) sham handled control; (2) Burdizzo castration; (3) hydrocortisone infusion to mimic the castration-induced secretion pattern of cortisol; (4) hourly pulse infusion of hydrocortisone; and (5) sustained infusion of hydrocortisone for 8h. Blood samples were collected intensively on day 0, and weekly from days 1 to 35. Castration acutely increased plasma cortisol, GH and haptoglobin concentrations, suppressed lymphocyte in vitro interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) production, but had no effect on plasma glucose and insulin concentrations. Cortisol infusion to simulate the castration-induced secretion pattern of cortisol, and pulse infusion of cortisol did not suppress the IFN-gamma production. A sustained infusion of cortisol resulted in the transient suppression of IFN-gamma production. Moreover, the sustained cortisol infusion resulted in increased plasma glucose, insulin and GH concentrations. The overall 14-day feed intakes and 35-day growth rates were not affected by treatments. In conclusion, cortisol infusion to induce immune suppression in vivo occurred only at pharmacological doses. Within physiological ranges, cortisol was not associated with the suppression of immune function, indicating that during castration cortisol per se is not responsible for the suppression of in vitro IFN-gamma production.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Equivalence of the 3-month and 28-day formulations of triptorelin with regard to achievement and maintenance of medical castration in women with endometriosis.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aims at demonstrating the equivalence of the 28-day and 3-month formulations of triptorelin SR (sustained release) in terms of percentage of patients achieving castration levels of estradiol (<==50 pg/mL) 84 days after treatment initiation. DESIGN: A phase II, prospective, randomized, multicenter, open study was conducted in two parallel groups of women with endometriosis. SETTING: Academic hospitals. PATIENT(S): Seventy-two women with endometriosis. were treated with a single intramuscular injection of 3-month triptorelin SR, and 74 patients were treated with one intramuscular injection of 28-day triptorelin SR every 28 days for 3 months. INTERVENTION(S): As part of two parallel treatment groups, 72 women were given a single intramuscular injection of 3-month triptorelin SR, and 74 women were given one intramuscular injection of 28-day triptorelin SR every 28 days for 3 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Percentage of patients achieving castration levels of estradiol at the end of the treatment period. RESULT(S): Patients participated in the study until resumption of menses. Ninety-seven percent of patients given the 3-month formulation and 94% of those given the 28-day formulation were in a state of medical castration on day 84. The mean time to achieve castration was shorter for the 3-month formulation, and the duration of castration was significantly longer. The FSH and LH parameters were comparable, though not always identical. CONCLUSION(S): The pharmacodynamic effects of the Decapeptyl SR 3-month formulation are equivalent to those of the 28-day formulation. The 3-month formulation provides the added advantage of a longer maintenance of medical castration in women who have endometriosis.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Influence of local anaesthesia on pain and distress induced by two bloodless castration methods in young lambs.

To assess short- and long-term effects of bloodless castration methods with and without local anaesthesia, behavioural and cortisol responses of lambs were used as indicators of pain and distress. Seventy lambs, aged 2-7 days, were control-handled or castrated by Burdizzo or rubber ring methods with and without local anaesthesia. Either 5 mL of diluted lidocaine (4 mg/kg) or physiological sodium chloride solution was distributed in both spermatic cords and the scrotal neck. The serum cortisol response was monitored for 48 h, and behavioural and clinical traits were followed for three months. Local anaesthesia tended to reduce behavioural and cortisol responses after Burdizzo castration and provided a significant reduction after rubber ring castration. Prolonged pain after rubber ring castration with anaesthesia was not evident. If combined with local anaesthesia, both the rubber ring and the Burdizzo methods are acceptable methods for castration of lambs up to one week of age.

Anesthesia, Local↗
PubMed2006

Post-castration retention of reproductive behavior and olfactory preferences in male Siberian hamsters: role of prior experience.

Reproductive behavior of virtually all adult male rodents is dependent on concurrent availability of gonadal steroids. The ejaculatory reflex is incompatible with long-term absence of testicular steroids and typically disappears within 3 weeks after castration. Male Siberian hamsters are an exception to this rule; mating culminating in the ejaculatory reflex occurs as many as 6 months after castration (persistent copulation). The emergence of persistent copulation many weeks after gonadectomy is here shown not to require repeated post-castration sexual experience. Preoperative sexual experience, on the other hand, significantly increases the percent of males that copulate after gonadectomy, but is not required for the emergence of this trait in 25% of males. Castration prior to puberty prevents persistent copulation in all individuals in adulthood. Persistent copulators, unlike males that cease mating activity after castration, prefer the odors of estrous over non-estrous females when tested 4 months after castration and 7 weeks after the last mating test. Neural circuits of persistent copulators retain the ability to mediate male sex behavior and preferences for female odors in the complete absence of gonadal steroids; they are influenced by preoperative sexual experience and organizational effects of gonadal hormones at the time of puberty.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Proteins of the rat prostate. II. Synthesis of new proteins in the ventral lobe during castration-induced regression.

Ventral prostates from adult Sprague-Dawley rats at different days postcastration were cut into one to two mm.3 pieces and incubated in medium containing S35-methionine (100 uCi/ml.) at 37C under 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide for four hours. The incubated tissues were subjected to two-dimensional electrophoresis and radiofluorography. Over 100 spots were developed in the fluorograms. Three groups of spots, representing cytoskeletal proteins, androgen-dependent proteins and castration-induced proteins, were further evaluated by a computer-based densitometer. The level of densitometry absorption is proportional to the amount of radioactivity in each spot. The synthesis of cytoskeletal proteins, such as actin and tropomyosin, were relatively constant throughout the course of prostatic regression. The rate of synthesis of androgen-dependent proteins declined rapidly from a high level of synthesis before castration to a non-detectable level by Day 3 postcastration. However, three proteins, which were either not synthesized (spot G and spot H) or synthesized at a very low level (spot I) before castration, were the major proteins synthesized by the prostate during early stages of its regression. The rate of synthesis of these proteins reached a peak by Day 4 postcastration, declined rapidly and remained at a low level thereafter. The respective molecular weights and isoelectric points for these three proteins were 33 Kd and 7.2 for spot G, 38 Kd and 5.3 for spot H and 64 Kd and 6.0 for spot I. Previous findings showed that prostatic regression in rats was associated with a surge of activities in proteolytic enzymes which peaked five to six days postcastration. The peak of synthesis of three proteins noted in the present study, therefore, preceded the peak of activities of proteolytic enzymes in the regressing prostate by one to two days. Testosterone replacement to animals at the time of castration prevented the synthesis of these proteins in the prostate. Since the synthesis of these three proteins in the ventral prostate is induced by androgen-depletion resulted from castration, they are considered as the castration-induced proteins.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Effects of castration on grooming in goats.

In African antelope and North American cervids, breeding males during the rut engage in less oral self-grooming, and harbor a greater density of ticks, compared with conspecific females and non-breeding males. The purpose of this study was to experimentally test the proposition that down-regulation of self grooming in some male bovids occurs via the direct or indirect action of testosterone. Domestic dairy goats (Capra hircus) were used as a model. In Experiment 1, comparative observations conducted on twelve gonadally intact male goats (bucks), nine males castrated at 3 weeks of age (wethers), and twelve intact females (does) supported the prediction that the grooming rate of intact males would be depressed relative to wethers and does. Bucks oral groomed at one-third and one-fourth the rate of wethers and does, respectively, and they scratch groomed half as much as does. There was no significant difference between wethers and does in oral or scratch grooming rates. Experiment 2 involved castration of eleven bucks from Experiment 1, followed by 2 months of observation. Similar to the pattern of other testosterone-dependent behavioral changes after castration in adult males, there was a good deal of variation in the individual grooming response of males to castration, with increases in grooming taking 2 to 8 weeks to be manifested in ten of eleven goats. Overall, castrated males oral groomed about 3 x above their intact rates, supporting the prediction that castration removes testosterone-mediated suppression of grooming. This is the first example of alteration of grooming behavior in males by gonadal androgen, and the first demonstration of enhancement of any mammalian behavior by removal of gonadal androgen.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

A controlled trial of bicalutamide versus castration in patients with advanced prostate cancer.

OBJECTIVES: Bicalutamide is a new, potent antiandrogen with potential efficacy in the treatment of men with advanced prostate cancer. Although no pure antiandrogen has been well studied versus castration, potentially fewer adverse effects could occur, making such an agent a potentially useful alternative therapy. To date, three randomized controlled trials have been performed comparing these two treatments. In preliminary studies, a dose of 50 mg bicalutamide per day was selected for these trials. In two of the studies (0302, 0303), this drug was compared to either medical or surgical castration, the latter choice being made by the patient. In the third study (0301), bicalutamide was compared to bilateral orchiectomy. METHODS: Using an intention-to-treat format, the outcomes assessed were time-to-treatment failure, time-to-objective disease progression, subjective response, and survival time in men with previously untreated metastatic disease. The incidence of breast tenderness, gynecomastia, and hot flushes was also determined in both treatment arms. A quality-of-life questionnaire was administered on multiple occasions after initiation of therapy. RESULTS: Based on an analysis of > 1000 patients, the objective and subjective results favored castration over bicalutamide (50 mg/day). The hazard ratios for time-to-treatment failure (1.59), time-to-disease progression (1.62), and median survival (1.44) were all significantly greater in the castration group (P > 0.001). Another difference noted at 3 months was a significantly lower median fall in prostate-specific antigen values in the bicalutamide group (86-88% versus 96-97%). Symptomatic patients receiving bicalutamide were only 0.43 times as likely to have subjective improvement as the patients treated by castration. A comparison of pharmacologic effects showed that only the incidence of hot flushes was lower in the bicalutamide group, whereas breast tenderness and gynecomastia were more common. This difference in hot flushes, however, translated into better quality of life during the first several months with regard to sexual relations and sexual functioning. CONCLUSIONS: Bicalutamide monotherapy at 50 mg/day appears inferior to castration in overall objective and subjective response rates. Whether higher doses of bicalutamide can compete more favorably will need to be tested in further clinical trials.

Aged↗
PubMed2001

Changes in plasma gonadotrophin and prolactin concentrations following castration of the pony stallion.

Concentrations of gonadotrophins and prolactin were recorded in pony stallions castrated during the early breeding season, to examine the regulatory role of the gonad at a time when testosterone has been postulated to exert positive feedback on LH secretion. Further, gonadotrophin concentrations in geldings are reported to return to values within the normal range of the entire stallion. In an attempt to characterize this species-specific reversal, the gonadotrophin concentrations of 6 male ponies castrated on 25 March were monitored for 4 months, and 4 stallions were used to generate control data. Blood samples were collected daily, from 3 d before to 10 d after castration (Day 0), and weekly thereafter until Day 122. The pituitary response to castration was immediate. Castration resulted in a previously unreported, dramatic (13-fold) but transient (3 d) surge in circulating concentrations of LH. Concentrations of LH and FSH increased in a logarithmically scaled (LH, R2 = 0.77; FSH, R2 = 0.93) manner over the subsequent 5 wk, during which temporal changes in concentrations of both hormones were strongly correlated (R2 = 0.97). The ratio of plasma gonadotrophin concentrations was consistent throughout (LH:FSH, 1.43 +/- 0.04). Maximal concentrations of LH (20.58 +/- 1.97 ng/mL, Day 34.8 +/- 3.2) were attained approximately 2 wk before the peak in FSH (16.99 +/- 1.97 ng/mL, Day 49.7 +/- 3.0). Plasma gonadotrophin concentrations exceeded those of entire stallions throughout the study. The equine testes inhibited LH secretion during the early breeding season, and no chronic decrease in plasma gonadotrophin concentrations was recorded. However, the LH surge evident for 3 d immediately afer castration, may be related to the dynamic seasonal interaction between gonadal steroids and the regulation of pituitary gonadotrophin release.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Effects of hemicastration and castration on foam production and its relationship with fertility in male Japanese quail.

Healthy heavy body weight strain of adult male Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix Japonica) of the same age were used in this study to observe the effect of hemicastration and castration on the frequency of foam discharges from cloacal gland and other related parameters. The quails were housed in individual cages and divided into four groups: control (intact birds), sham-operated control (intact birds with incision), hemicastrated, and castrated groups of birds. Hemicastration and castration were carried out surgically at 10 and 13 weeks of age, respectively. Subsequently, 3 weeks after castration birds were examined for different parameters. Hemicastration caused a significant (P < 0.05) drop in the foam discharge frequency, weight of the foam, and the level of testosterone in the plasma, whereas in castrated group these variables were observed nil or negligible as compared to both of the controls. A suppressive effect of hemicastration was also noticed on the body weight, area of the cloacal gland, as well as percent fertility. Castration induced the drastic regression of the cloacal gland and a significant reduction (P < 0.05) of the body weight was also noted as compared to other groups. Frequencies of foam discharges were twice the number in daytime (06:00-18:00 h) than night, irrespective of the groups. In another study, the effect of characteristics of foam or foam glands on fertility was examined in 77 male birds paired with females. Several characteristics of foam and foam glands were examined for infertility, such as light yellow foam, dark yellow foam, smaller area of foam gland (below 225 mm2), hardness of foam gland and certain unknown factors that contributed 0.23, 0.68, 5.23, 2.27 and 3.64% infertility, respectively. An overall 12.1% birds were found to be infertile. This data indicated that smaller sizes of foam glands might reflect the poorest fertilizing ability of the male birds. From this study, it may be concluded that the cloacal gland may be considered as an external indicator of testicular function of the birds. Characteristics of the cloacal gland or foam or both may be used as a simple and effective tool to predict the fertilizing ability of an individual male in view of the very small semen ejaculate that is very difficult to collect and evaluate for fertility.

Animals↗