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PubMed1995

Long-term recall of event sequences in infancy.

The first experiment shows that 11-month-olds can encode novel causal events from a brief period of observational learning, and recall much of the information after 24 h. The second experiment, using both a longitudinal and a cross-sectional design, shows recall of the same events after a delay of 3 months. The infants remembered more individual actions than whole sequences, but reproduced many of the events in their entirety (and always in correct order) after the long delay. Although they also reproduced arbitrarily ordered events immediately after being shown them at 11 months, they began to forget them after 24 h and showed essentially no recall for this type of event after 3 months. The experiments not only indicate long-lasting memory for briefly experienced events in infancy, they also suggest that the factors that organize recall at this young age are similar to those found in older children and adults.

Association Learning↗
PubMed1995

Digit and shape memory function in soroban learners: are soroban learners superior in general?

The memory function of 15 soroban learners and 13 novices was examined on visual memory tasks. Analysis showed soroban learners were superior in performance of digit recall but not of shape recall. This result seems to reflect the tendency for soroban groups to be better in processing some kinds of spatial than categorical properties. Based upon these results, effects of soroban learning on brain function were discussed.

Attention↗
PubMed1996

Cognitive sequence knowledge: what is learned?

In 4 experiments, participants performed running-arithmetic tasks. These tasks involved a sequential ordering of individual operations and a structure of subgoals that defined how calculations fit together in purpose. Consistent transitions between adjacent steps facilitated performance only when subgoal structures were relatively simple. When subgoal structures were more complex, consistent mapping of operations to serial locations produced a slight benefit. Consistency of subgoal structure produced a substantial benefit in both speed and accuracy, and some knowledge of subgoal structure integrated with knowledge of the sequence of operations. Apparently, a task's subgoal structure imposes demands that either facilitate or obscure benefits of sequence consistencies. The benefits are attributed to increased efficiency in using working memory.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Human neurologic function and the aging process.

Sixty-one normal men whose ages ranged from 20 to 80 years were evaluated on two occasions by means of a comprehensive series of 128 instrumented tests of neurologic function. The tests measured cognition, vision, strength, steadiness, reactions, speed, coordination, fatigue, gait, station, sensations, and tasks of daily living. The reliability of each test measured was determined, and any measure found unreliable (r less than or equal to 0.41) was not further analyzed. Significant age-related linear decreases were found for almost all neurologic functions. The declines over the age span varied from less than 10 percent to more than 90 percent for different functions. For the upper extremities, the largest declines (greater than 50 percent) were in hand-force steadiness, speed of hand-arm movements, and vibration sense; for the lower extremities, the largest declines were in one-legged balance with eyes closed and in vibration sense. For 13 of 14 tests in which significant dominant body-side effects were found, larger re-testing 7-10 days later, the subjects improved their scores by more than 5 percent on only 17 tests, 9 of which concerned the activities of daily living. No significant differential learning effects were found across age groups. The results point to the importance of developing a data bank on age-based neurologic function so that therapeutic effects can be evaluated in terms of age- and sex-matched normal functioning.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Metipranolol and propranolol: no CNS effects of a single oral dose.

Effects of single oral doses of the beta-blocking drugs propranolol (40 mg) and metipranolol (Disorat, Boehringer, Mannheim, FRG, 5 and 20 mg), in comparison with placebo, on mental performance and psychophysiological measures were investigated in a double-blind crossover study comprising 12 healthy volunteers. Effects were evaluated using a battery of highly reliable and sensitive computerized indices of mental performance and a comprehensive range of psychophysiological measures. Propranolol and metipranolol had no effects on mental performance, in contrast to findings in a previous study for bunitrolol (Stresson, Boehringer, Ingelheim, FRG). There were marked effects on some autonomic functions; dose-dependent for heart rate and heart rate response, and dose-independent for blood pressure and finger tremor. In the previous study bunitrolol had no effect on tremor and blood pressure and a less marked effect on heart rate. The lack of psychotropic effects for metipranolol and propranolol as compared to bunitrolol cannot be predicted from pharmacokinetic properties or peripheral effects of the three drugs, arguing for the need for systematic screening using psychometric and psychophysiological methods of current and new beta-blocking drugs. A comparison between the effect of propranolol given in a single oral dose and findings in a previous study with repeated administration suggested that the differences in effect profile between acute and chronic administration of the drug are small.

Adrenergic beta-Antagonists↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Stimulus classes in matching to sample and sequence production: the emergence of numeric relations.

We investigated interrelationships among stimulus classes established in matching-to-sample and sequence-production tasks. The analysis focused on the matching and sequencing of quantities, numerals, and arbitrary forms in two individuals with mental retardation. The basic protocol involved: (a) establishing both matching and sequencing performances with some stimuli, (b) training sequencing with a new set of stimuli and assessing whether new matching performances emerged, and (c) training matching with a new set of stimuli and assessing whether new sequencing emerged. The results showed that sequence training did not readily lead to new matching performances, unlike prior research with college students. In contrast, training in matching to sample yielded emergent sequence production; these data support prior studies involving children and adults without developmental disabilities. The results extend prior stimulus class research and suggest an important role for stimulus control processes in the production of generative numeric performances.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

The relationship between skill learning and repetition priming: experimental and computational analyses.

Skill learning and repetition priming are considered by some to be supported by separate memory systems. The authors examined the relationship between skill learning and priming in 3 experiments using a digit entering task, in which participants were presented with unique and repeated 5-digit strings with controlled sequential structure. Both skill learning and priming were observed across a wide range of skill levels. Performance reflected the effects of learning at 3 different levels of stimulus structure, calling into question a binary dichotomy between item-specific priming and general skill learning. Two computational models were developed which demonstrated that previous dissociations between skill learning and priming can occur within a single memory system. The experimental and computational results are interpreted as suggesting that skill learning and priming should be viewed as 2 aspects of a single incremental learning mechanism.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Digit span and other WISC-R scores in the diagnosis of dyslexia in children.

The examination of subtest scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale is needed to provide confirmatory evidence for various subtest categorizations as there is no consensus about what patterns might be diagnostically useful. The present study supports the use of the ACID/AVID profiles (Arithmetic, Coding or Vocabulary, Information, and Digit Span) as elements in the diagnosis of dyslexia. WISC-R scores from 44 subjects were analyzed for specific subtest patterns of scores which might separate dyslexic individuals from the WISC-R standardization group. Perhaps some WISC-R ACID/AVID profile pattern analyses may be valid in the diagnosis of a stringently defined population of learning disabled individuals such as dyslexic children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Behavioral effects of oral versus intravenous administration of diazepam.

The behavioral effects of oral versus intravenous administration of diazepam were studied in 50 volunteers using a battery of memory, cognitive, mood and psychomotor tests repeated over a 4.5 hr period. Subjects received diazepam 0.2 mg/kg or placebo as capsules, commercial tablets or intravenous solution in a randomized double blind manner. While a quick onset of effects occurred with intravenous administration followed by the capsule and tablet oral administrations in that order, the recovery rate was similar for the 3 methods of administration. Contrary to many claims in the literature the effects of oral administration were substantial. Behavioral impairment was directly related to the magnitude of the memory component of the task. On many of the tasks the pattern of diazepam impairment was one of delayed improvement of performance, a pattern which would only be apparent with repeated testing. Subjects who received diazepam showed a paradoxical enhancement of recall for material learned before the drug.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1989

Deficient programming in spatial learning after frontal lobe damage.

Patients with anterior or posterior brain damage and control subjects performed a spatial sequence learning task in which the score obtained depended on the subject's ability to set sub-goals appropriate for his learning capacity. The anterior group obtained lower scores and more frequently set inadequate sub-goals than the posterior group. No anterior vs posterior difference was found on a similar learning task in which another sequence was learnt by predetermined sub-goals. The result supported the hypothesis that frontal lobe lesions disturb programming or goal-based search for action structure on spatial learning.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

The effects of desmethylimipramine on cognitive function in healthy subjects.

The cognitive effects of the specific norepinephrine (NE) uptake inhibitor desmethylimipramine (DMI) were examined in normal subjects. Although there were no differences in performance on drug compared to placebo treatment, there was an improvement in cognition 1 week after the drug had been discontinued. On DMI, there was evidence for increased noradrenergic activity, which was uncorrelated with measures of learning and memory. An improvement in mood during drug withdrawal was uncorrelated with the cognitive enhancement. It was concluded that the discontinuation of DMI, a drug which primarily affects NE uptake, improves several measures of learning and memory. Drug effects on cognition may be most pronounced during the withdrawal period.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Academic achievement in high functioning autistic individuals.

Academic achievement levels in 54 high functioning (IQ > 70) autistic subjects were compared with those of 41 normal controls, who did not differ significantly in age, IQ, gender, race, or SES from the autistic subjects. The measures of academic achievement used included portions of the Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-2, the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test, and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement. Based on prior neuropsychological findings, it was hypothesized that autistic subjects would not differ from controls on subtests assessing mechanical and procedural skills, but would differ on subtests measuring comprehension and interpretive skills. As predicted, the autistic subjects performed significantly less well than controls on comprehension tasks, but not on mechanical reading, spelling, and computational tasks. This pattern is at variance with the typical academic profile of individuals with disabilities in reading or spelling, but shares some features with the nonverbal learning disabilities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

An analysis of errors in the learning, overlearning, and forgetting of sequences.

This paper investigates the effects upon delayed recall of errors made during learning. Subjects learn a sequence of wagons in a model train over repeated presentation and test cycles. The recall of the same sequence is unexpectedly tested one week later. The results show that the errors subjects make during learning are a significant factor in predicting which elements of the sequence are forgotten. Learning is modelled by a population of discrete traces, accumulated during learning, which has two characteristics: First, many of the traces duplicate information encoded in other traces; and second, representations of the correct sequence coexist with traces containing incorrect information about the same elements of the sequence. Forgetting is modelled by the accretion of null traces that compete with correct traces of retrieval and the increasing inability with time to discriminate correct representations in memory from erroneous records. This model is shown to provide a good fit to the experimental results and suggests a strong link between the complete history of learning new material (including errors) and its subsequent likelihood of forgetting.

Attention↗
PubMed1984

The nature and specificity of the language coding deficit in autistic children.

The subjects, 12 autistic, 12 retarded and 12 normal children, range-matched on digit span and mental age, were asked to learn and recall sequences of words. Four types of sequence were used: sequences were constructed to be either grammatically well formed or not and were constructed so that the elements had a high or low degree of semantic relatedness. Sequences were presented in an auditory-verbal serial recall task and performance was assessed with three measures: serial recall, cluster recall and free recall. In general, recall was better when the degree of semantic relatedness was high rather than low, and the improvement was similar for all groups. Similarly, recall was better for sequences which were grammatically well formed than for sequences which were not, but the improvement of normal children was significantly greater than that of autistic children. While contemporary theories view the linguistic deficit evidenced by autistics as a deficit in the processing of semantic information, these results show that autistics have a deficit in processing syntactic information. However, this study does not resolve the issue of whether the deficit is specific to autism or a more general, developmental deficit, for while autistics differed from matched normal children, they did not differ from matched retarded children. Methodological problems in the construction of natural language sequences which vary independently in semantic and syntactic features are discussed, and it is suggested that sequences with artificial syntactic and semantic (associational) structures should be used to resolve the question of whether autistics have a deficit in processing semantic information.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Short-term withdrawal of antiepileptic medication: effects on attention and memory.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of routine withdrawal of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) during preoperative evaluation on cognitive functions and also to clarify whether short-term withdrawal of AED would help to lateralize the epileptic focus and to highlight focal dysfunction of memory in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. MATERIAL & METHODS: Cognitive function was evaluated in 25 patients on full medication and after 1-week during the ongoing AED withdrawal. Six additional patients without AED withdrawal were studied during the same time interval and served as controls. The effect of AED withdrawal on memory tests was evaluated in a subgroup of 11 patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE group). RESULTS: In the TLE group, verbal recurrent-sequences learning tasks deteriorated significantly in patients with left-sided foci during AED withdrawal. In the whole group, attention, concentration and mental flexibility improved both in patients and in controls; the improvement was interpreted as being the result of the practice effect. During AED withdrawal, the number of errors in these tests decreased or remained unchanged. CONCLUSION: We suggest that preoperative neuropsychological testing can be scheduled at any time in patients referred for epilepsy surgery. In patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, the lateralizing results of selective memory tests may be most reliable if the testing is performed during AED withdrawal.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Neuropsychological assessment in illiterates: visuospatial and memory abilities.

A basic neuropsychological battery of visuospatial and memory abilities was administered to extreme educational groups (illiterates and professionals). Subjects were matched according to sex and age. The following visuospatial tasks were included: figure copy (cube, house, and Rey-Osterrieth complex figure), telling time, recognition of superimposed figures, recognition of a map, and drawing of the plan of the room. The following memory tasks were used: basic information, digit retention (forward and backward), memory curve, delayed verbal recall, sentence repetition, logical memory, delayed logical memory, immediate recall of the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure, immediate reproduction of a cube, visuospatial memory, and sequential memory. In visuospatial tasks all differences between the two groups were statistically significant. Five of the seven visuospatial tasks (all but telling time and recognition of superimposed figures) showed differences between age groups with a better performance found in the younger groups and four of the tasks (cube, house, Rey-Osterrith complex figure copying, and telling time) were significant between sexes with a better performance in men. In memory tasks, with the exception of the immediate memory of sentences, all tasks showed statistically significant differences between educational groups. Eight of the 13 memory tasks (digits forward and backward, delayed memory of words, immediate and delayed logical memory, Rey-Osterrieth immediate memory, cube immediate memory, and sequential memory) showed significant differences for age while 4 of the tasks (digits backward, memory curve, Rey-Osterrieth immediate memory, and cube immediate memory) were significant for sex. Results are analyzed with regard to current theories in cognitive psychology and anthropology. Emphasis is placed on the finding that cognitive skills usually examined by neuropsychological tests represent learned and highly trained abilities.

Adolescent↗