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PubMedDate not supplied

Psychophysiological correlates of organizational change and threat of unemployment among police inspectors.

The study examined psychosocial work-conditions and physiological reactions among thirty-six police inspectors (median age 45 years, 81% males) who participated in a reorganization. At this time, subjects were threatened by unemployment and had to re-apply for their positions in a new police district. Data were collected during the reorganization and at three years follow-up, by means of questionnaires (Stress Profile) and blood samples. The blood samples were used to determine serum levels of gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), glucose, lipids, prolactin, testosterone and cortisol. The results show a positive association between worry about employment and symptoms of burnout during the reorganization. Mean scores for the Stress Profile sub-scales worry about employment (p<.01) and work-load (p<.05) decreased between measurements, but an impairment in relationships with management was noticed (p<.05). No significant changes were observed in terms of self-rated health complaints. Significant decreases in total cholesterol (p<.0001), LDL-cholesterol (p<.0001), LDL/HDL-ratio (p<.01), prolactin (p<.0001), as well as increases in testosterone (p<.01) and cortisol (p<.001) were observed for the whole sample. Glucose decreased with marginal significance (<.07). Controlling for age and gender, multivariate regression analyses showed that subjects who reported deteriorations in satisfaction with work manifested the most modest decreases in prolactin (p<.05). Also, the decrease in glucose was larger for subjects who experienced impairments in satisfaction with work (p<.05), information (p<.05), task-oriented leadership, (p<.05), and respect and dignity (p<.05). Subjects who perceived deteriorations in the ethical and moral standards of the organization increased their cortisol level to a lower degree than their counterparts (p<.05). Favorable changes in employment status and psychosocial work environment seem to be related to improved physiological functioning.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Long-term therapy of chronic non-malignant pain with potent opioids in an active police officer.

PURPOSE: To report the successful long-term use of methadone and tramadol in treating low back pain in a marine police officer. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The patient sustained a work-related injury having fallen down stairs while on duty in 1990. After multiple operations for a prolapsed L5/S1 intervertebral disk, he was first seen at our pain clinic in 1994. Numerous systemic medications, invasive procedures, physiotherapy and psychotherapy were used to treat his pain, but without sustained effect. Methadone was started in late 1995 and tramadol in 2000. The current maintenance doses are methadone 20 mg and tramadol 200 mg, both twice daily. Apart from some initial disruption, the patient was soon able to return to full time work. Regular performance reports from his supervisors have always been excellent. CONCLUSION: The use of methadone in this police officer with chronic low back pain has been very successful despite the demanding nature of his job. The controversy surrounding, and further suggestions regarding long-term use of opioid therapy for non-malignant pain are discussed.

Accidental Falls↗
PubMed1992

Professional attitudes regarding the sexual abuse of children: comparing police, child welfare and community mental health.

A survey was completed involving three of the key professional groups engaged in the investigation and treatment of child sexual abuse. Police, child welfare and community mental health in a large, rural geographic area in Canada completed attitudinal items relating to professional response to child sexual abuse. An empirical scale was created which was comprised of three orthogonal factors, each with acceptable levels of internal consistency: 1) Beliefs in regard to the extensiveness and seriousness of the issue; 2) treatment versus punishment priority; and 3) view regarding identity of those who perpetrate child sexual abuse. Important gender differences were found across professional groupings in attitude toward sexual abuse. Greatest difference in attitude between service sectors was tied to emphasis placed on treatment versus punishment as a primary aspect of professional intervention. Significant differences were found between child welfare and police, the two service sectors most needing a coordinated approach during the "investigative phase" of professional intervention.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Impact characteristics of two types of police baton.

A comparison study of the American style ASP extendible police baton with the conventional UK police wooden truncheon was performed. It was found that the ASP baton generated approximately twice the contact pressure than the conventional wooden truncheon. A discussion on the medical/legal aspects of the results are given.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗
PubMed2005

Occupational exposure to bloodborne viruses in the Amsterdam police force, 2000-2003.

OBJECTIVES: To assess and evaluate the rate and outcome of occupational exposure to hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the Amsterdam police force. METHODS: Retrospectively, all accidents with risk for viral transmission reported to the Municipal Health Service between January 1, 2000 and December 31, 2003 were described and analyzed in 2004. RESULTS: Over a 4-year period, 112 exposures with a viral transmission risk were reported (the estimated exposure rate was 68/10,000/year). Of these exposures, 89 (79%) sources were tested, finding 4% HBV-positive, 4% HIV-positive, and 18% HCV-positive. Immunoglobulin for HBV infection was given 44 times; HIV post-exposure prophylaxis was prescribed 16 times and 13 of 16 discontinued the course within a few days because the transmission source tested HIV-negative. No seroconversions were seen in persons exposed. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of exposure is low. The majority of the sources could be traced and tested. However, a comprehensive and effective protocol is essential in minimizing the risk of occupational HBV, HCV, and HIV infection in police officers, even if HBV vaccination is provided.

Accidents↗
PubMed2004

Cerebral blood flow changes during script-driven imagery in police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder.

BACKGROUND: Functional brain imaging studies in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have focused mostly on war or sexual abuse victims, many of whom also had comorbid disorders. The aim of this study was to examine the neuronal circuitry underlying responses to script-driven imagery in traumatized police officers with and without PTSD and with low comorbidity rates. METHODS: In a case-matched control study, 30 traumatized police officers with and without PTSD underwent clinical assessment and (99m)technetium-hexa-methyl-propylene-amine-oxime single photon emission computed tomography scanning with neutral and trauma scripts. Statistical parametric mapping was applied to analyze changes in regional cerebral blood flow. RESULTS: The main findings were significantly less activation in the medial frontal gyrus and more activation in the right cuneus in the PTSD group relative to the trauma-exposed control group in reaction to trauma versus neutral scripts. Within the PTSD group, subjects showed less activation in the superior temporal gyrus, left lentiform nucleus, left middle frontal gyrus, and left inferior frontal gyrus in reaction to trauma scripts. CONCLUSIONS: We confirmed previous findings of dysfunction of the medial frontal gyrus in PTSD in a new population with low comorbidity rates. Other alterations were found in certain brain structures involved in emotional, memory, linguistic, visuospatial, and motor processing.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Association between childhood trauma and catecholamine response to psychological stress in police academy recruits.

BACKGROUND: Childhood trauma is a risk factor for anxiety disorders in adulthood. One possible mechanism for this association is an increased neuroendocrine response to stress in adults with a history of childhood trauma. METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, 76 police academy recruits (mean [+/-SD] age 28 +/- 5 years, 10 female) were exposed to a video depicting real-life officers exposed to highly stressful incidents. Salivary cortisol and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-phenylglycol (MHPG, the major metabolite of norepinephrine) were collected at baseline, immediately after the video, and 20 min after the video. Childhood trauma before age 14 was assessed with an interview (Life Stressor Checklist-Revised). RESULTS: Exposure to the video elicited significant MHPG and cortisol responses in both groups. Recruits with childhood trauma histories (n = 16) had a significantly greater MHPG response, as evidenced by a group effect (F = 8.0, p < .01), and a group x time interaction (F = 4.1, p < .05). The cortisol response did not differ between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Police academy recruits with childhood trauma histories have an increased catecholamine response to psychological stress. This might serve as a risk factor for anxiety disorders in recruits, and these findings might generalize to other groups with a history of childhood trauma.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Concealment of drugs by police detainees: lessons learned from adverse incidents and from 'routine' clinical practice.

This is a collaborative piece of work undertaken between the PCA and a Principal FME. The study is based on 16 cases of internal drug concealment drawn from 43 drug-related deaths in custody in England and Wales between 1997 and 2002. These data are supplemented by three case studies from a county force involving non-fatal drug concealment to illustrate practical custody issues. The majority of the 16 deaths were white (n = 12) and male (n = 13) with a mean age of 34 years. In half of the cases, the deceased was known or believed to have concealed drugs orally at the point of initial contact with police. In 4/16 cases, the individual first showed signs of medical distress in a public place, a further 4 collapsed on arrival at the police station and two more detainees were subsequently found collapsed in their cell. Drug toxicity was the most common cause of death (10/16). In 5 cases death was caused by airway obstruction by swallowed packages. Both cocaine (14/16) and cannabis (8/16) traces were found in post-mortem samples. The report emphasises the need for a safety first approach.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

PTSD symptoms predict waking salivary cortisol levels in police officers.

This study examines whether pre- or post-dexamethasone salivary cortisol is related to cumulative critical incident exposure, peritraumatic responses, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. Thirty active duty police officers completed the study protocol, which included measures of peritraumatic emotional distress, peritraumatic dissociation, duty-related trauma exposure, and PTSD symptoms. Salivary cortisol was consolidated into three outcome variables: (1) pre-dexamethasone free cortisol levels at 1, 30, 45, and 60 min after awakening, (2) post-dexamethasone cortisol levels at the identical wake times, and (3) percentage of cortisol suppression. Control variables included age, gender, average daily alcohol use, night shift work, routine work environment stressors, and salivary dexamethasone levels. Zero order correlations showed that greater levels of PTSD symptoms, peritraumatic distress, and peritraumatic dissociation were associated with lower levels of pre-dexamethasone cortisol levels on awakening, but were not associated with the other two cortisol variables. A trend was also noted for older subjects to have lower pre-dexamethasone cortisol on awakening. When these four predictors were entered simultaneously in a regression analysis, only age and PTSD symptom severity significantly predicted pre-dexamethasone awakening cortisol levels. These results replicate previous research indicating a relationship between greater PTSD symptoms and lower levels of basal cortisol on awakening, and extend this finding to a previously unstudied non-treatment seeking population, urban police.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Increased police enforcement: effects on speed.

Results of a field experiment in which a 35-km long stretch of road was subjected to an increase in police enforcement--mostly as stationary speed controls--are presented. A group of police officers was invited to plan and perform the enforcement based on their own experience and ideas. The level of enforcement reached a daily average of nine hours throughout an enforcement period of six weeks. Speed measurements were done in 60 and 80 km/h speed-limit zones before, during and after enforcement withdrawal, and were compared to another stretch of road. Average speeds were reduced by 0.9-4.8 km/h in both speed-limit zones and for all times of day. For some time intervals, the average speed and the percentage of speeding drivers were reduced for several weeks of the after-period, demonstrating a time-halo effect of eight weeks at most. The percentage of speeding drivers was reduced in both speed-limit zones for all hours of the day except the morning rush hours 6.00-9.00 A.M. It is suggested that commuting drivers in the morning rush hours are most resistant to speed reduction. These results were statistically significant at alpha = 0.01.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2003

Health and safety in policing: lessons from the regulation of CS sprays in the UK.

Recent years have seen the introduction of a wide range of weapons for police forces around the world intended to minimise injuries incurred in officer-public encounters. In 1996, police forces in England and Wales began trials of CS incapacitant sprays. This article reviews the claims and counterclaims surrounding the medical implications of the sprays with a view to asking how the uncertainties associated with them have been handled in the regulation process. This analysis casts considerable doubt on the robustness of the precautions taken and demonstrates a continuing failure for relevant government agencies to respond and learn from problems identified. Drawing on wider literature regarding the health implications of risky technologies, it further asks what policy lessons the case of the CS sprays holds for the regulation of weaponry at an international level.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2000

Occupational needlestick injuries in a metropolitan police force.

OBJECTIVES: Police officers are at risk of bloodborne diseases through needlestick injuries but few studies have addressed this problem. The purpose of this study was to assess the risk of needlestick injuries in law enforcement officers and to determine predictors of injuries and reporting rates. DESIGN: An anonymous, voluntary questionnaire was distributed to 1738 active-duty, metropolitan police officers. The survey included the number of needlestick injuries ever experienced, how often these were reported, activities at the time of injury and attitudes toward injuries. RESULTS: Of the 803 respondents (46.2% of survey population), 29.7% had at least one needlestick injury, and 27.7% of this group had two or more. Risk factors included evening shifts, pat-down searches, patrol duties, male gender and less experience. Only 39.2% sought medical attention for these injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Needlestick injuries occur with considerable frequency in this group of law enforcement personnel, suggesting an increased risk of becoming infected with bloodborne pathogens, including hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Sister chromatid exchange induction in peripheral blood lymphocytes of traffic police workers.

Traffic police workers, as a population exposed to urban atmosphere, were compared with a control population exposed to indoor air pollution levels. Sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs) as a biomarker of effect were measured in peripheral blood lymphocytes of 54 exposed subjects and 35 controls, and environmental concentration of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) tracer compounds was detected by personal air samplers. The mean exposure level to benzo[a]pyrene in our group of traffic policemen (3.4 mg/m3) was in the range that has been estimated in urban areas in Europe during the last 10 years. No difference in SCE levels was found between exposed workers (7.36, SD 1.35) and controls (7.47, SD 1.28). No correlation was observed between SCE/cell and airborne PAH concentration in the traffic worker population. A positive regression of SCE on exposure estimate was found only in the non-smoking group of police workers. Our findings suggest that exposure to urban air pollution does not induce relevant cytogenetic effects.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

'Mentally disordered persons found in public places'. Diagnostic and social aspects of police referrals (Section 136).

A survey over 2 years of all Police Referrals (Section 136 of the Mental Health Act 1983) in an inner-city health district identified 163 cases, with a core group of repeat referrals. Previous psychiatric admissions, a diagnosis of schizophrenia, social deprivation, and a bias towards young men of Afro-Caribbean ethnicity were key features. The difficulty of obtaining clear data and uncertainties within the law rebound unfairly on patients, police and psychiatrists. Section 136, while not inappropriate diagnostically, can be seen as highlighting unmet social and medical needs in the context of community care. The requirement for coordinated resources, including acute in-patient services sufficient for deprived populations and legal provision for treatment beyond a hospital's boundaries, seems paramount.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Posttraumatic symptoms in South African police exposed to violence.

A study was undertaken with 55 Internal Stability Unit (ISU) members of the South African Police (SAP) to establish whether the situations under which they work, continuous and current, as opposed to prior, traumatic exposure, would result in a particular type of traumatic symptom constellation. The results indicated that the traumatic stressor of witnessing a traumatic event was predictive of the symptoms of intrusion. However, symptoms of intrusion were correlated with symptoms of avoidance, suggesting that avoidance may be a defensive response to intrusive phenomena which are a direct effect of exposure to violence. Various hypotheses were suggested to explain this phenomenon, focusing on the need for denial within a macho police culture and the particular features of the South African scenario.

Humans↗
PubMed2003

Fear-potentiated startle and posttraumatic stress symptoms in urban police officers.

We studied the effects of increasing threat conditions on self-reported emotion, eyeblink electromyogram, and skin conductance responses to startling sounds in 55 police officers who endorsed a range of PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder) symptoms. We found that contextual threat affected both physiologic and self-reported emotional responses. Greater PTSD symptom severity was related to greater physiologic responses under the low and medium but not under the high threat condition. The relationship between PTSD symptoms and physiologic responses was neither explained by self-reported emotional responses nor preexisting reported exaggerated startle symptoms. Our results emphasize the importance of contextual threat and suggest that laboratory measures of startle improve upon self-reported exaggerated startle alone in indexing PTSD symptom severity in urban police officers.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Police-reported intimate partner violence during pregnancy and the risk of antenatal hospitalization.

OBJECTIVES: Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a significant public health problem and the abuse of women during pregnancy is of particular concern. Few studies have addressed the relationship between IPV and antenatal hospitalization. This study utilized a novel approach to examine the impact of IPV during pregnancy on antenatal hospitalization not associated with delivery. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study included Seattle women residents 16-49 years of age. Exposed subjects were women with a police-reported IPV incident during pregnancy in the years 1995 through 1998 and who subsequently had a singleton live birth or fetal death. The unexposed group was composed of randomly selected residents with a singleton birth or fetal death and without a police-reported IPV incident during the study period. Linked hospital discharge files and birth records were utilized to determine study outcomes. Logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: Women reporting any IPV during pregnancy were twice as likely as unexposed women to experience an antenatal hospitalization not associated with delivery (aAOR 2.39, CI 1.77, 3.24). Women with IPV were more likely to have been hospitalized with a substance abuse-related diagnosis (aOR 2.70, CI 1.52, 4.78) or a mental health-related diagnosis (aOR 1.93, CI 0.96, 3.91). Physical IPV was more strongly associated with antenatal hospitalization than nonphysical IPV or IPV overall. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that women hospitalized during pregnancy, particularly those with substance abuse and mental health-related conditions, may be at high risk for concurrent IPV.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Detecting true lies: police officers' ability to detect suspects' lies.

Ninety-nine police officers, not identified in previous research as belonging to groups that are superior in lie detection, attempted to detect truths and lies told by suspects during their videotaped police interviews. Accuracy rates were higher than those typically found in deception research and reached levels similar to those obtained by specialized lie detectors in previous research. Accuracy was positively correlated with perceived experience in interviewing suspects and with mentioning cues to detecting deceit that relate to a suspect's story. Accuracy was negatively correlated with popular stereotypical cues such as gaze aversion and fidgeting. As in previous research, accuracy and confidence were not significantly correlated, but the level of confidence was dependent on whether officers judged actual truths or actual lies and on the method by which confidence was measured.

Adult↗