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PubMed2004

Playing and working through: a neglected analogy.

The author proposes an analogy between certain features of playing and aspects of working through. Conceptualizing psychoanalysis as the process whereby unconscious fantasy is uncovered and then subjected to rigorous scrutiny, and building on Freud's (1908) insight that play is the same as fantasy--with the essential difference that fantasy links itself to real objects in play, such as toys and playthings--the author proposes that play can be thought of as not merely symbolic, as a fantasy bearer, so to speak, but as a fantasy tester as well. In the process of working through, some analysands attach their unconscious fantasies not only to a transference object, a primary libidinal object, or a significant loved one, but also to actual props within the analytic setting (a Kleenex box, for example), making the analogy with play even more obvious and palpable.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Parent-identified problem preschoolers: mother-child interaction during play at intake and 1-year follow-up.

Parent-referred 2- and 3-year-olds and controls, participating in a longitudinal study of hyperactivity and related behavior problems, were observed with their mothers during play at an initial assessment and a 1-year follow-up. Mothers of problem children provided more redirection initially and made more negative control statements at follow-up than mothers of controls; problem youngsters tended to play more aggressively. Sex differences were prominent. Mothers of boys, regardless of referral status, were more directive at the initial assessment; their sons were less cooperative and somewhat more aggressive in their play. Maternal involvement in play decreased over time, possibly as a response to developmental changes in children's play. Group by time interactions indicated that mothers of control children provided fewer negative control statements at follow-up relative to mothers of problem children and to their own levels at the first assessment; mothers of problem youngsters redirected their children less than they had initially. Mothers of boys were also less directive at follow-up relative to their initial levels. Situational and developmental factors are discussed briefly.

Affect↗
PubMed1992

Attention, play, and social behavior in ADHD preschoolers.

We investigated attention, play and nonplay behavior in preschool children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and a matched control group of non-ADHD children. Forty 4- to 5-year-old children (20 ADHD and 20 matched control) participated. Across a 6-week-period, children's social and play interactions as well as nonplay behaviors were videotaped in the classroom. Videotape recordings were analyzed for the level of attention, cognitive play, and social participation. In addition, children's level of attention and cooperative behavior were observed during two group activities. Findings indicated that ADHD, relative to non-ADHD, children engaged in less overall play and greater functional or sensorimotor play. ADHD children also engaged in more transitional behavior, were less competent with peers, and were less attentive and cooperative during group activities.

Attention↗
PubMed1980

Gender typing of game choices and qualities of boys' play behavior.

Relationships between gender choices and both movement patterns and social behavior were studied in first- and second-grade boys. Three-child, structured play groups were each composed of a boy whose mother saw him as high masculine in play preference on the Games Inventory, one seen as average, and one low masculine. Behaviors rated from videotapes included gender presentation variables, (e.g., leg separation), indicators of dominance and personal comfort (e.g., range of movements), and indicators of social skill and peer response (e.g., interaction initiations). The low masculine boys were found to be the most feminine in their gender presentation, least dominant and aggressive, and the lest socially successful of the boys. The greatest difference was between the low and the high masculine boys. The average masculine boys' scores were generally intermediate, but more similar to the low masculine boys on some variables and more similar to the high masculine boys on others. These conclusions apply to a grou interaction play task, but not to an initial noninteractive play task. A secondary study in which girls played with low and average masculine boys is also reported. Here it was found that low masculine boys were generally intermediate between average boys and girls on gender presentation and dominance variables, but lowest of the groups on social interaction variables.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed1979

Free-play behavior of atypical children: an approach to assessment.

Children's free-play behavior and its relationship to IQ and usefulness in assessing severely disturbed children were investigated. The results indicated that (1) the play of 100 normal children scored for quality and time generally yielded significant positive correlations with Binet and WPPSI IQs; (2) the correlations remained the same when verbalizations were deleted from the play protocols; (3) the play scores for 16 severely disturbed boys significantly differentiated two subgroups differing in degree of pathology, showed significant improvement from the pre- to posttreatment periods, and indicated pretreatment scores were significantly and positively correlated with improvement assessed by observer ratings in a 2-year follow-up. Implications for the use of this measure in assessment and the role of play in development were discussed.

Attention↗
PubMed1975

Systematic observation of play behavior in autistic children.

The play behavior, defined as interaction with peers and objects, of five autistic children was systematically observed in four environments, i.e., a stark environment, a theraplay unit, a playroom, and an outside play deck. The preliminary results suggested that (1) with some children environment has little or no effect on their play behavior; (2) with multiple objects, autistic children frequently related to the objects rather than to their peers; (3) object play was most frequently at the manipulative stage and often included repetitive and negative behavior; (4) within a confined space with no objects present, autistic children frequently engaged in solitary repetitive behavior; and (5) within a confined space designed to facilitate a movement flow (theraplay), autistic children modeled and imitated and were involved in gross motor play together.

Aggression↗
PubMed1982

Childhood play activities of male and female homosexuals and heterosexuals.

This study examined the differences in childhood play behavior reported by adult male homosexuals (N = 198) and heterosexuals (N = 198) and those reported by female homosexuals (N = 198) and heterosexuals (N = 198). Two checklists with a total of 58 sports, games, and play activities were assembled: one for ages 5--8 and the other for ages 9--13. These were administered to the four samples. Monotonicity analysis (a type of factor analysis) revealed four scales within each checklist that were statistically reliable in each of the four samples. Scale and item mean comparisons revealed large significant differences between heterosexual males and females, male homosexuals and heterosexuals, and female homosexuals and heterosexuals. A majority of homosexuals reported significant degrees of cross-sex behavior in childhood play. Favorite play activities, age trends, play-related attitudes, and parent-child interactions were also examined.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Training nonverbal and verbal play skills to mentally retarded and autistic children.

Two mentally retarded boys with autism and one mentally retarded girl with Down syndrome were taught to initiate and play a ball game with an adult confederate. The program targeted both nonverbal responses related to the actual execution of the ball game as well as verbal responses for play initiation and providing compliments for the confederate's behavior. Training sessions provided ample practice in all aspects of the game from initiation to termination through use of brief play cycles. Instruction was provided using a combination of physical and verbal prompts as well as reinforcement and time-out. All three children learned the game and by the study's completion executed multiple play cycles each session. The implications of combining play and social skills training in programming for developmentally handicapped children are discussed.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1998

Role-played interpersonal interaction: ecological validity and cardiovascular reactivity.

Conflictual role-play scenarios have been used to model brief interpersonal interaction and to elicit cardiovascular reactivity in the laboratory. Here we discuss data suggesting that role-played interactions constitute an ecologically valid laboratory task that may improve laboratory-to-field generalization of cardiovascular response. Specifically, our research indicates that young adults perceive the stress associated with role-play scenarios as similar to that encountered in everyday life. Furthermore, these stress appraisals moderate cardiovascular response to role-play in men. We also find that a social stressor (i.e. speech task) is perceived as significantly more similar to a real-life stressor as compared to other standard laboratory tasks. We propose that particular constellations of cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to laboratory-based social stressors, such as role-played interaction, may elicit different patterns of hemodynamic response. Further understanding of interrelations among cognitive, affective, behavioral, and physiological response patterns may assist in the study of cardiovascular reactivity as a potential mechanism linking personality factors and the development of cardiovascular disease.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2007

Brief report: designing a playground for children with autistic spectrum disorders--effects on playful peer interactions.

This study investigated possible changes in social play and initiations in eight boys (5 to 7-years-old) with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) who were moving from an old to a new school playground that was designed specifically to enhance playful peer interaction. Each boy was observed for half an hour over three occasions in the old, then the new setting. The playgrounds differed in design, spatial density and identity of potential play partners. As hypothesised, frequency of group play and overall social initiations increased significantly in the new setting. We discuss how playgrounds with appropriate levels of physical challenge and support for both structured, imaginative play and solitary observation may support peer interactions in children with ASD.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1995

Social play alters regional brain opioid receptor binding in juvenile rats.

An in vivo autoradiographic procedure was employed to visualize local changes in brain opioid receptor occupancy in juvenile rats. This procedure is based on the assumption that released endogenous ligand will exclude exogenously applied tracer, in this case [3H]diprenorphine, from opioid receptors. Increases in availability of opioid peptides will then result in decreased opioid receptor binding. From behavioral studies there is ample evidence that opioid systems are involved in the regulation of social play behavior in juvenile rats. In the present study, changes in regional brain opioid activity as a result of social isolation-induced social play behavior were monitored. Twenty-one-day-old rats were socially isolated for 0, 3.5 or 24 h prior to testing, and tested alone or in a dyadic encounter. After behavioral testing, [3H]diprenorphine was administered and the brain was prepared for autoradiography. Social isolation caused increases in social behavior (dyadic encounters) but not in non-social behavior (singly tested animals). Modest differences in brain opioid receptor binding due to social isolation, social play behavior, or an interaction of the two, were found in claustrum, nucleus accumbens, globus pallidus, paraventricular and arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus, and the dorsolateral and paratenial thalamic nuclei. These results support the notion that opioid systems are involved in the regulation of social play behavior. In addition, the observation of changes in opioid binding in areas involved in reward processes, adds evidence to the hypothesis that opioid systems are involved in the regulation of the rewarding aspects of social play in juvenile rats.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Modification of juvenile play and other social behaviour in the rat by neonatal progestins: further studies.

The effects of altering neonatal levels of progestins on the later development of social play behaviour was studied. Progestin levels were raised in experiment one by administering injections of either progesterone or medroxyprogesterone acetate. This indicated that exposure to either hormone led to reduced levels of social play in juvenile rats of both sexes, confirming earlier reports of lowered levels of play following medroxyprogesterone obtained via maternal milk. In Experiment 2, endogenous progestin levels were lowered by administration of the antiserum to progesterone. The prediction that this should result in raised levels of juvenile play was supported for males, but not for females. Females in Experiment 2 by contrast showed a decrease in play. Possible reasons for this sex difference in response to progesterone antiserum are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Early separation of young rats from the mother and the development of play fighting.

Play fighting was studied in rats which were either normally reared (separated from the mother on day 30) or prematurely separated from the mother on day 15. The animals were tested in pairs on days 33, 36 and 39 of age and play fights were recorded. Play fighting behavior increased markedly after three days of social isolation. In all pairs of normally reared animals (controls, 30S) the rats with the higher pinning scores on the first day also had the higher frequency of pinning on the second and third day of the test. The same trend in the distribution of pinning was found in pairs where the normally weaned animals (30S) played with the early weaned ones (15S). The latter, however, were always pinned by the former (30S) and had significantly lower pinning scores. Such a stable distribution of pinnings did not develop during play fights in pairs of early weaned animals (Group 15S).

Aggression↗
PubMed1989

Effects of blindness on play fighting in golden hamster infants.

The effects of bilateral optic enucleation on play fighting in golden hamster infants were studied. The behaviors of blind-blind (BB), blind-intact (BI) and intact-intact (II) dyads were recorded from the 30th to the 36th day of age. It has been noted that the differences in physical contact, play fighting and grooming time, as well as in the percentage of time spent in play fighting, the amount of locomotion and other activities of BB, BI and II were small and statistically insignificant. The mean number of active and passive pinning in all groups was equivalent and the alternation of active and passive pinning, or vice versa, was around 50%, showing that posture during play fighting is not an indicator of dominance. It has been concluded that vision is not important for either the initiation or the modulation of play fighting in golden hamsters.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Influence of environmental factors on social play behavior of juvenile rats.

The effects of light level and familiarity to the testing environment on social behaviors related and unrelated to play were investigated in juvenile rats accustomed to dim light conditions. Pinning, a measure characteristic for social play in rats, was completely suppressed under intense light conditions. Following/chasing and boxing/wrestling, social behaviors related to play, were also decreased under intense light. Of the measures of social behavior not related to play, contact behavior was decreased under intense light whereas social exploration was hardly affected. Levels of social exploration and following/chasing gradually declined during the 15-min test period. Frequency of contact behavior decreased, whereas duration increased with time. Under dim light conditions, unfamiliarity to the test cage suppressed pinning and boxing/wrestling but not the other social behaviors in the first part of the test period. These findings show that social behavior in juvenile rats, as in adult rats, can be influenced by light level and familiarity to the test cage. Social behaviors related and unrelated to play seem to be differentially influenced by environmental stimuli.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Naloxone and play fighting in juvenile rats.

According to the opioid hypothesis of social attachment opiate receptor blockade should increase the need for social contact. Yet naloxone reduces play fighting [11], a major form of social interaction in young rats. This observation might be reconciled with the opioid attachment hypothesis if it could be shown that naloxone produced compensatory increases in other social activities or if naloxone shortened play fighting bouts without reducing their frequency. In the present experiment naloxone reduced play fighting in a dose-dependent fashion. However, the frequency of play bouts was reduced, their duration unchanged and no compensatory increase in social sniffing and grooming was observed. In addition, naloxone inhibited rearing almost as potently as it affected play fighting.

Aggression↗
PubMed1983

Play soliciting in juvenile male rats: effects of caffeine, amphetamine and methylphenidate.

Three standard CNS stimulants were tested for effect on juvenile play soliciting in prepubertal male rats (n = 120). Three dosages of each stimulant were compared with a saline control. Soliciting behavior was isolated and magnified by a novel method incorporating pretest social deprivation and social response to a standard nonplayful social stimulus pretreated with scopolamine HBr. Caffeine significantly decreased frequency of play soliciting only at the high dose of 40 mg/kg. Methylphenidate and d-amphetamine significantly decreased play soliciting at all dosages tested. The method is proposed as a generally useful experimental paradigm in analyses of drug effects on play soliciting. Advantages include individual measures of soliciting behavior that correlate reliably with measures of rough-and-tumble play fighting.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed1995

Play behavior and stress responsivity in periadolescent offspring exposed prenatally to cocaine.

Play behavior and stress responsiveness were examined in offspring exposed gestationally to cocaine. The subjects were offspring of Sprague-Dawley rat dams given s.c. injections of 40 mg/kg/3 cc cocaine HC1 daily from gestational days 8-20 (C40), pair-fed dams injected daily with saline (PF), and untreated control dams (LC). Periadolescent (postnatal day (P) 30-36) male and female rats were assigned to either pretest Stress or No Stress conditions. Every other day Stress animals were exposed to a stressor (on P30--foot shock; P32--white noise; P34--forced swim; P36--foot shock), with each stressor being administered 4 h prior to a play session. Immobility during one of the stressors, foot shock, was used to assess stress responsiveness. Play sessions consisted of pairing each experimental animal with a same-sex, nonexperimentally manipulated conspecific for 7 min. The results indicated that periadolescent offspring exposed gestationally to cocaine differed from controls in their stress responsivity, as evidenced by a failure to show increased immobility during the final foot shock session. Also, while cocaine-exposed juveniles did not differ from controls in their own play behavior, these offspring elicited less play solicitation from conspecifics, as evidenced by an increased latency to be pounced, and decreased frequency and duration of being pounced. These findings parallel earlier evidence for altered stress responsiveness in adult cocaine-exposed rats and also suggest that prenatal exposure to cocaine results in altered social cues.

Animals↗