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At least 415 records · Page 23Linked to original sources
PubMed2005

Apathy and the functional anatomy of the prefrontal cortex-basal ganglia circuits.

The clinical signs grouped under the concept of apathy are a common feature of prefrontal and basal ganglia lesions or dysfunctions and can therefore help to improve our understanding of the functional anatomy of the prefrontal-basal ganglia system. Apathy is here defined as a quantitative reduction of voluntary, goal-directed behaviors. The underlying mechanisms responsible for apathy can be divided into three subtypes of disrupted processing: 'emotional-affective', 'cognitive' and 'auto-activation'. Apathy due to the disruption of 'emotional-affective' processing refers to the inability to establish the necessary linkage between emotional-affective signals and the ongoing or forthcoming behavior. It may be related to lesions of the orbital-medial prefrontal cortex or to the related subregions (limbic territory) within the basal ganglia (e.g. ventral striatum, ventral pallidum). Apathy due to the disruption of 'cognitive' processing refers to difficulties in elaborating the plan of actions necessary for the ongoing or forthcoming behavior. It may be related to lesions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the related subregions (associative territory) within the basal ganglia (e.g. dorsal caudate nucleus). The disruption of 'auto-activation' processing refers to the inability to self-activate thoughts or self-initiate actions contrasting with a relatively spared ability to generate externally driven behavior. It is responsible for the most severe form of apathy and in most cases the lesions affect bilaterally the associative and limbic territories of the internal portion of the globus pallidus. It characterizes the syndrome of 'auto-activation deficit' (also known as 'psychic akinesia' or 'athymormia'). This syndrome implies that direct lesions of the basal ganglia output result in a loss of amplification of the relevant signal, consequently leading to a diminished extraction of this signal within the frontal cortex. Likewise, apathy occurring in Parkinson's disease could be interpreted as secondary to the loss of spatial and temporal focalization of the signals transferred to the frontal cortex. In both situations (direct basal ganglia lesions and nigro-striatal dopaminergic loss), the capacity of the frontal cortex to select, initiate, maintain and shift programs of actions is impaired.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

CGMP increases in satellite cells of nitric oxide synthase-containing sensory ganglia.

cGMP and the enzymes, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), the products of which stimulate soluble guanylyl cyclase activity, were investigated in cultured dorsal root ganglia (DRG), and nodose ganglia of adult rats. A dramatic increase of cGMP-positive satellite cells in ganglia cultured for 24 or 48 h was observed, particularly in Th8-L2 DRG and in nodose ganglia. These ganglia also contained most NOS-positive neurones, as reflected by NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry. HO-1 immunoreactivity increased in satellite cells, but in different cells to those in which cGMP increased. These results suggest that both NO and CO could be involved in signalling between neurones and satellite cells in sensory ganglia during regeneration.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Cavernous sinus ganglia are sources for parasympathetic innervation of cerebral arteries in rat.

Retrograde tracing and immunohistochemistry was used in rats to investigate whether the ganglia in the cavernous sinus contribute to cerebrovascular innervation. The cavernous sinus ganglia in rat include the cavernous part of the pterygopalatine ganglion (PGC) and small cavernous ganglia (CG). The tracers, fluorogold and fast blue, were applied to the middle cerebral artery in eight rats. After 1 to 4 days, the cavernous sinuses were dissected out and studied as whole mount preparations and sections. A moderate number of labeled neurons were visible in the ipsilateral PGC and CG. Furthermore, fibers in the cavernous nerve plexus and abducens nerve were labeled, suggesting that the pathway from the cavernous sinus ganglia to the cerebral arteries runs through the cavernous plexus and then retrogradely along the abducens nerve to the internal carotid artery. Selected sections were immunohistochemically stained for the cholinergic marker, vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). Most cells in the PGC and CG were VAChT-immunoreactive, some of which also contained tracer. It is concluded that in rat, the cavernous sinus ganglia, consisting of the PGC and small CG, contribute to parasympathetic cerebrovascular innervation and that the cavernous nerve plexus and abducens nerve are involved in the pathway from these ganglia to the cerebral arteries.

Acetylcholinesterase↗
PubMed1998

Neurotrophin sensitivity of prevertebral and paravertebral rat sympathetic autonomic ganglia.

Prevertebral and paravertebral sympathetic autonomic ganglia respond differently to a large number of experimental and clinical insults. The selective involvement of subpopulations of sympathetic neurons may reflect differences in their response to neurotrophic substances. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the response of prevertebral and paravertebral rat sympathetic ganglia to selected neurotrophic substances in vivo and in vitro and identified the ganglionic distribution of neurons expressing high affinity neurotrophin receptor mRNAs. Dissociated cultures of embryonic prevertebral and paravertebral ganglionic neurons showed comparable responses to NGF deprivation and only small differences in their response to rescue with other trophic substances. In situ hybridization studies of adult rat sympathetic ganglia using probes specific for the high-affinity neurotrophin receptor transcripts trks A, B, and C demonstrated that neurons in both prevertebral and paravertebral sympathetic ganglia express predominantly trkA receptors in vivo. In addition, increased tyrosine hydroxylase (TOH) activity was induced only by doses of neurotrophic substances that activate trkA and showed only small differences between neonatal prevertebral and paravertebral ganglia. Although small differences in the sensitivity of pre- and paravertebral sympathetic neurons to various neurotrophins have been identified in our studies, they are unlikely, in isolation, to explain major differences in the sensitivity of these ganglia to neuropathologic processes.

Aging↗
PubMed1998

Effect of cavernous nerve freezing on protein and gene expression of nitric oxide synthase in the rat penis and pelvic ganglia.

PURPOSE: Cryoablation of the prostate has been reported to induce impotence as a result of cavernous nerve injury. This study is designed to investigate the early and late effects of cavernosal nerve cryoablation on erectile function and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) containing nerves in the rat penis and pelvic ganglia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty male rats were divided into two groups (n = 20 each). The first group underwent unilateral cavernous nerve freezing (experimental group). Before their euthanization at 1 and 3 months (10 rats each), erectile function was assessed by electrostimulation of the cavernous nerves. The second group served as a control and was euthanized at the same time points. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) diaphorase staining was used to identify NOS in the penile nerve fibers of the mid-shaft segment and neurons of the pelvic ganglia. Western blot, RT-PCR and immunostaining techniques were used to identify protein and gene expression of eNOS, iNOS, and nNOS. RESULTS: One month after unilateral cavernosal nerve freezing, there was a significant decrease in NOS-containing nerve fibers in the dorsal and intracavernosal nerves and ipsilateral pelvic ganglia as compared with the intact side. At three months, the number of NOS containing nerve fibers in the above-mentioned nerves and ganglia showed a significant increase on the frozen side but not the intact side. Electrostimulation of the frozen nerve after three months revealed a significantly higher maximal intracavernosal pressure and a shorter latency period than the one-month group. At three months, immunoblot showed up-regulation of eNOS and nNOS protein expression in the penile tissue. RT-PCR showed up-regulation of nNOS gene expression in the pelvic ganglia of the frozen side. Immunostaining confirmed the results of western blot and showed significant increase of the nNOS positive staining in the frozen side of the penile tissue after three months. There was no difference in iNOS after three months between both sides. Our repeated eNOS immunostaining was not successful. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that intracavernous pressure response to neurostimulation markedly decreased at one month and then partially recovered three months after cavernosal nerve freezing. A similar pattern of changes of the NOS-containing nerve fibers in dorsal nerves, intracavernosal nerves, and pelvic ganglia were observed. This alteration in erectile function and NOS-containing nerves was associated with differential gene and protein expression of the three subtypes of NOS.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Anatomic and radiographic study of dorsal root ganglia.

Anatomic and radiographic studies were made to investigate normal variation of dorsal root ganglia in lumbosacral roots. The spinal nerves could be divided into two groups, with and without bifurcation of ventral nerve root and dorsal root ganglion. The bifurcated group was further classified into three types. L4 and L5 nerve roots were all bifurcated, and S1 were all nonbifurcated. The positions of dorsal root ganglia were classified into three types: intraspinal, intraforaminal, and extraforaminal. At L4 and L5 nerve roots, they were mostly intraforaminal, whereas at S1, they were mostly intraspinal. Proximally placed ganglia had a high frequency of ganglionic indentation. The incidence of intraspinal dorsal root ganglia was much higher clinically than in anatomic studies. Variations in connecting patterns or positions of dorsal root ganglia may be related to the occurrence and variety of radicular symptoms. The dorsal root ganglia is clinically important, and its location may correspond to clinical symptoms.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

The effects of mechanical compression and hypoxia on nerve root and dorsal root ganglia. An analysis of ectopic firing using an in vitro model.

STUDY DESIGN: This study analyzed in vitro experiments of ectopic firing evoked by mechanical compression or hypoxia of canine lumbar dorsal roots with dorsal root ganglia using an in vitro model. OBJECTIVES: The results were correlated to understand the pathophysiology of radiculopathy, which manifests abnormal sensation and pain. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: It has been speculated that blood flow in the nerve root and mechanical compression play major roles in the production of radiculopathy symptoms. However, no precise experimental studies have been conducted on the relationship between these factors and the development of ectopic firing. METHODS: Canine lumbar dorsal roots with dorsal root ganglia were immersed in an oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid, and activity of the nerve root was recorded using bipolar platinum electrodes. Using this model, the effects of quantitative mechanical compression and hypoxia on the ectopic firing were analyzed. RESULTS: When compression was applied, mechanical thresholds for eliciting firing were much lower in dorsal root ganglia than in dorsal roots, and the firing lasted for a longer period in dorsal root ganglia. Under hypoxia, dorsal root ganglia showed firing, and their thresholds from mechanical stimuli decreased significantly. In dorsal roots, impulse propagation was not affected, whereas firing was seen under the hypoxic condition. CONCLUSION: Dorsal root ganglia are highly sensitive to mechanical compression and hypoxia and closely related to abnormal sensations and pain in radiculopathy.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1987

Changes in the content of dopamine and its metabolites in the basal ganglia following right middle cerebral artery occlusion and reflow in monkeys.

Focal ischaemia was produced experimentally in Macaca radiata monkeys by occlusion of middle cerebral artery (MCA). There was a lowering of the dopamine (DA) content of basal ganglia after 4 and 12 h of occlusion. DA content was restored to normal in basal ganglia after restoration of blood flow. With the progress of time the DA content was increased above that of sham controls. Changes were also observed in the non-occluded left basal ganglia. The homovanillic acid (HVA) content was decreased significantly at 12 h after occlusion. After the onset of reflow, the HVA content of the right basal ganglia was higher than that of sham controls. The 3,4 dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) content of right basal ganglia was significantly decreased after 12 h occlusion. Reflow restored the level of DOPAC to normal within 1 h after removal of clip. Discrete changes were also observed in the left basal ganglia at some of the time intervals.

3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic Acid↗
PubMed1994

Differential expression of bcl-2 and bax mRNA in axotomized dorsal root ganglia of young and adult rats.

Bcl-2 and Bax have recently been identified as putative repressor and effector proteins respectively, in the cell death program of growth factor-deprived haematopoietic cell lines. Overexpression of bcl-2 in neuronal cell culture prevents apoptosis induced by removal of neurotrophic factors. In the present in vivo study the expression of bcl-2 and bax mRNA has been investigated in dorsal root ganglia of young and adult rats using polymerase chain reaction. A high constitutive expression was observed for both genes in control ganglia. Unilateral transection of the sciatic nerve led to a dramatic decrease in bcl-2 mRNA levels in ganglia of young animals within 5 days following nerve lesion and a partial recovery thereafter. In contrast, the decline in bcl-2 mRNA was much less pronounced in axotomized ganglia of adults. The amount of bax transcripts did not change significantly in ganglia of both young and adult rats up to 20 days after nerve injury. The decrease in bcl-2 expression in dorsal root ganglia may be part of the molecular mechanism leading to neuronal cell death after axotomy-induced deprivation of neurotrophic factors. The age-dependent decline in the ratio of bcl-2 to bax gene products may explain the greater susceptibility of immature neurons to apoptosis.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Herpes simplex virus type 1 DNA replication and gene expression during explant-induced reactivation of latently infected murine sensory ganglia.

Infectious virus assays and PCR amplification of DNA and RNA were used to investigate herpes simplex virus DNA replication and gene expression in two murine in vitro models for virus reactivation. We examined latent infections with wild-type (wt), precisely defined latency-associated transcript-negative (LAT-) mutants, and LAT+ rescuants of these mutants of the 17syn+ strain of virus in both murine trigeminal and lumbosacral ganglia and of the KOS(M) strain in the latter. In explants of ganglia latently infected with the LAT- mutant of strain 17syn+ virus, a reduction in number of cultures exhibiting cytopathic effects due to virus reactivation and measurable delays in virus recovery were observed compared with wt or the LAT+ rescuant. This LAT-specific effect was not seen in explants of lumbosacral ganglia latently infected with mutants derived from the KOS(M) strain of virus. Although there was appreciable variation between individual animals, no significant difference between LAT+ and LAT- virus in time of onset of viral DNA replication in explanted ganglia was seen with use of either virus strain. There was a slight decrease in the relative amount of viral DNA recovered compared with internal cellular controls in latently infected ganglia harboring the LAT- mutant of 17syn+ compared with the wt virus or the LAT+ rescuant. This reduced relative amount ranged from 0 to as much as 50% but averaged 20%. Such differences were not seen in infections with KOS(M)-derived mutants. In contrast, although expression of productive-cycle transcripts could be detected within 4 h following explant cultivation of latently infected ganglia, no differences between LAT+ and LAT- viruses could be seen. As discussed, these data place specific constraints on possible models for the role of LAT expression in in vitro reactivation systems.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Electrophysiological properties of avian basal ganglia neurons recorded in vitro.

The forebrains of mammals and birds appear quite different in their gross morphology, making it difficult to identify homologies between them and to assess how far they have diverged in organization. Nevertheless one set of forebrain structures, the basal ganglia, has been successfully compared in mammals and birds. Anatomical, histochemical, and molecular data have identified the avian homologues of the mammalian basal ganglia and indicate that they are very similar in organization, suggesting that they perform similar functions in the two classes. However, the physiological properties of the avian basal ganglia have not been studied, and these properties are critical for inferring functional similarity. We have used a zebra finch brain slice preparation to characterize the intrinsic physiological properties of neurons in the avian basal ganglia, particularly in the input structure of the basal ganglia, the striatum. We found that avian striatum contains a cell type that closely resembles the medium spiny neuron, the principal cell type of mammalian striatum. Avian striatum also contains a rare cell type that is very similar to an interneuron class found in mammalian striatum, the low-threshold spike cell. On the other hand, we found an aspiny, fast-firing cell type in avian striatum that is distinct from all known classes of mammalian striatal neuron. These neurons usually fired spontaneously at 10 Hz or more and were capable of sustained firing at very high rates when injected with depolarizing current. The existence of this cell type represents an important difference between avian striatum and mammalian dorsal striatum. Our data support the general idea that the organization and functional properties of the basal ganglia have been largely conserved in mammals and birds, but they imply that avian striatum is not identical to mammalian dorsal striatum.

4-Aminopyridine↗
PubMed2003

The basal ganglia and motor control.

This paper briefly reviews the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia and their relationships with the thalamocortical system. The basal ganglia, including the striatum, pallidum, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra, are involved in a number of parallel, functionally segregated cortical-subcortical circuits. These circuits support a wide range of sensorimotor, cognitive and emotional-motivational brain functions. A main role of the basal ganglia is the learning and selection of the most appropriate motor or behavioral programs. The internal functional organization of the basal ganglia is very well suited for such selection mechanisms, both in development and in adulthood. The question of whether clumsiness may be, at least in part, attributed to dysfunction of the basal ganglia is discussed in the context of the differential, complementary, or interactive roles of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum in the development of motor control.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Chicken GnRH II-like peptides and a GnRH receptor selective for chicken GnRH II in amphibian sympathetic ganglia.

Amphibia, like most vertebrate species, have two forms of GnRH, namely [Arg8]GnRH (mammalian GnRH) and [His5,Trp7,Tyr8] GnRH (chicken GnRH II). The differential distribution of the two peptides in the amphibian brain suggests that they may play different roles. Mammalian GnRH, which is found predominantly in the hypothalamus, is most likely the prime regulator of gonadotropin release, while chicken GnRH II, which occurs predominantly in the midbrain and hindbrain, may play a neuromodulatory role. In amphibian sympathetic ganglia, GnRH has been demonstrated to be a neurotransmitter where its release from the presynaptic nerve terminals reversibly inhibits M current, a time- and voltage-dependent potassium current. The occurrence of GnRH in sympathetic ganglia extracts from two amphibian species was investigated. Chicken GnRH II-like immunoreactivity was detected in extracts of bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and platanna (Xenopus laevis) sympathetic ganglia after high performance liquid chromatography. Under the chromatographic conditions used, a second unknown peptide co-eluted with synthetic mammalian GnRH, but showed no cross-reactivity with specific mammalian GnRH antisera. To test the possibility of the presence of a chicken GnRH II receptor in sympathetic ganglion neurones, competition binding of membranes extracted from the sympathetic ganglia of the two amphibian species was investigated with 125I-labelled GnRH agonists. The binding of 125-I-[His5,D-Arg6,Trp7,Tyr8]GnRH (a chicken GnRH II agonist) to membranes from the sympathetic ganglia of both amphibian species was specific and had a higher affinity than chicken GnRH II, mammalian GnRH and a mammalian GnRH agonist [D-Ala6,NMe-Leu7,Pro9-NHEt]GnRH. These findings suggest that endogenous chicken GnRH II may play a role in synaptic transmission in the sympathetic ganglia via a receptor specific for chicken GnRH II.

Amphibians↗
PubMed1989

Contributions from the upper cervical dorsal roots and trigeminal ganglia to the feline circle of Willis.

To further define the sensory projections to the circle of Willis, we measured concentrations of immunoreactive substance P in pial arteries of cats following either bilateral removal of the C1-3 dorsal root ganglia (six cats) or bilateral removal of the trigeminal ganglia (three cats). Removal of the dorsal root ganglia decreased concentrations of the tachykinin substance P in the vertebral artery and the basilar artery and its branches by 72% and 50-66%, respectively. Bilateral removal of the trigeminal ganglia decreased substance P concentrations in all forebrain vessels including the rostral basilar artery, although only concentrations in the anterior cerebral artery were significantly lower than those in unilaterally lesioned cats (p less than 0.01). Hence, the vertebrobasilar artery and its tributaries are invested by substance P-containing fibers originating from the upper cervical dorsal root ganglia, and the anterior cerebral artery is innervated by both trigeminal ganglia. If a similar anatomy exists in humans, our data provide an explanation for the occipital localization of headaches arising from the vertebrobasilar arteries and for bilateral headaches following stimulation of the anterior cerebral artery.

Animals↗
PubMed2007

The basal ganglia and cortex implement optimal decision making between alternative actions.

Neurophysiological studies have identified a number of brain regions critically involved in solving the problem of action selection or decision making. In the case of highly practiced tasks, these regions include cortical areas hypothesized to integrate evidence supporting alternative actions and the basal ganglia, hypothesized to act as a central switch in gating behavioral requests. However, despite our relatively detailed knowledge of basal ganglia biology and its connectivity with the cortex and numerical simulation studies demonstrating selective function, no formal theoretical framework exists that supplies an algorithmic description of these circuits. This article shows how many aspects of the anatomy and physiology of the circuit involving the cortex and basal ganglia are exactly those required to implement the computation defined by an asymptotically optimal statistical test for decision making: the multihypothesis sequential probability ratio test (MSPRT). The resulting model of basal ganglia provides a new framework for understanding the computation in the basal ganglia during decision making in highly practiced tasks. The predictions of the theory concerning the properties of particular neuronal populations are validated in existing experimental data. Further, we show that this neurobiologically grounded implementation of MSPRT outperforms other candidates for neural decision making, that it is structurally and parametrically robust, and that it can accommodate cortical mechanisms for decision making in a way that complements those in basal ganglia.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1999

A confocal microscopic study of the formation of ganglia in the airways of fetal pig lung.

Fetal airway smooth muscle contracts to neural stimulation from early gestation. This study aimed to document the development of the nerves and ganglia within the bronchial tree of the fetal pig lung as the structural correlates for this function. The formation of these structures during lung development (pseudoglandular stage, canalicular stage, and saccular stage) was followed through to the postnatal period, using antibodies to protein gene product 9.5, a nonspecific nerve marker; synaptic vesicle protein 2, a marker of synaptic vesicle membranes; and neurofilament, a marker of filaments in the neuronal cytoskeleton. Glial cells were stained for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and S-100, and the airway smooth muscle for alpha-actin. Whole mounts of the bronchial tree were imaged using confocal microscopy. The formation of ganglia commences in the pseudoglandular stage with patches of neuroblasts in the wall of the epithelial tubules. These ganglionic precursors are supplied with an abundance of nerve trunks and fibers that arise from the vagus and extend to the growing tips of the airways. These trunks show profiles of Schwann cells. As the airways grow, the ganglionic precursors condense at the nerve junctions. Nerve bundles in trunks and neurons in ganglia become increasingly enveloped by GFAP-positive sheaths. From midterm onward (canalicular stage), ganglia contain cholinergic neurons. In the third trimester (saccular stage) and postnatally, ganglia further increase in size and contain mainly nerve fibers in the center. Thus, neural tissue is a dominant feature of the primordial lung, which is enveloped by nerves and ganglia through gestation into postnatal life.

Aging↗
PubMed2006

Increased antistreptococcal antibody titers and anti-basal ganglia antibodies in patients with Tourette syndrome: controlled cross-sectional study.

The association between Tourette syndrome, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder following streptococcal infections has been documented, but with conflicting reports. We thus felt it was important to investigate this association in a group of Italian patients not previously documented. We took blood on 69 patients with Tourette syndrome and 72 age- and sex-matched tic-free controls. Laboratory staff were blind to the diagnostic status of the subjects. Evidence of recent streptococcal infection was defined using antistreptolysin titers. Anti-basal ganglia antibodies were determined using human basal ganglia sections. Statistical analysis was conducted using analysis of variance and chi-square tests. Raised antistreptolysin titers were found in 41 of 69 (59%) patients with Tourette syndrome and 14 of 72 (19%) controls (P = .000). Positive anti-basal ganglia antibodies were found in 22 of 69 (32%) subjects with Tourette syndrome compared with 7 of 72 (10%) controls, which was also significant (P = .002). Raised antistreptolysin titers were detected in 18 of 22 (82%) patients with Tourette syndrome with positive anti-basal ganglia antibodies and 22 of 47 (47%) patients with negative anti-basal ganglia antibodies (P = .01). These results support the reported association between streptococcal infection and anti-basal ganglia antibodies and some patients with Tourette syndrome.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Patients with stroke confined to basal ganglia have diminished response to rehabilitation efforts.

Prediction of the functional outcome for patients with stroke has depended on the severity of impairment, location of brain injury, age, and general medical condition. This study compared admission and discharge functional outcome (Functional Independence Measure, FIM) and deficit severity (Fugl-Meyer, F-M) scores in a retrospective study of patients with similar neurologic impairments: homonymous hemianopia, hemisensory loss, and hemiparesis. CT-verified stroke location was the independent variable: cortical (n = 11), basal ganglia and internal capsule (normal cortex and thalamus, n = 13), or combined (cortical, basal ganglia, and internal capsule, n = 22). By 3 months on average after stroke, all groups demonstrated significantly improved motor function as measured by F-M scores. Patients with cortical lesions had the least CT-imaged damage and the best outcome. Patients with combined lesions and more extensive brain injury had significantly higher FIM scores (P < 0.05) than patients with injury restricted to the basal ganglia/ internal capsule. Patients with basal ganglia/internal capsule injury were more likely to have hypotonia, flaccid paralysis, and persistently impaired balance and ambulation performance. While all patients had a comparable rehabilitation experience, these results suggest that patients with stroke confined to the basal ganglia and internal capsule benefited less from therapy. Isolated basal ganglia stroke may cause persistent corticothalamic-basal ganglia interactions that are dysfunctional and impede recovery.

Aged↗