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PubMed2006

Herbal medicine for low back pain.

BACKGROUND: Low-back pain is a common condition and a substantial economic burden in industrialized societies. A large proportion of patients with chronic low-back pain use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), visit CAM practitioners, or both. Several herbal medicines have been purported for use in low-back pain. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effectiveness of herbal medicine for non-specific low-back pain. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the following electronic databases: Cochrane Complementary Medicine Field Trials Register (Issue 3, 2005), MEDLINE (1966 to July 2005), EMBASE (1980 to July 2005); checked reference lists in review articles, guidelines and retrieved trials; and personally contacted individuals with expertise in this very specialized area. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomized controlled trials, examining adults (over 18 years of age) suffering from acute, sub-acute or chronic non-specific low-back pain. The interventions were herbal medicines, defined as plants that are used for medicinal purposes in any form. Primary outcome measures were pain and function. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors (JJG & MVT) conducted the database searches. One author contacted content experts and acquired relevant citations. Full references and abstracts of the identified studies were downloaded. A hard copy was retrieved for final inclusion decisions. Methodological quality and clinical relevance were assessed separately by two individuals. Disagreements were resolved by consensus. MAIN RESULTS: Ten trials were included in this review. Two high quality trials examining the effects of Harpagophytum Procumbens (Devil's Claw) found strong evidence that daily doses standardized to 50 mg or 100 mg harpagoside were better than placebo for short-term improvements in pain and rescue medication. Another high quality trial demonstrated relative equivalence to 12.5 mg per day of rofecoxib (Vioxx). Two trials examining the effects of Salix Alba (White Willow Bark) found moderate evidence that daily doses standardized to 120 mg or 240 mg salicin were better than placebo for short-term improvements in pain and rescue medication. An additional trial demonstrated relative equivalence to 12.5 mg per day of rofecoxib. Three low quality trials on Capsicum Frutescens (Cayenne), examining various topical preparations, found moderate evidence that Capsicum Frutescens produced more favourable results than placebo and one trial found equivalence to a homeopathic ointment. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Harpagophytum Procumbens, Salix Alba and Capsicum Frutescens seem to reduce pain more than placebo. Additional trials testing these herbal medicines against standard treatments are needed. The quality of reporting in these trials was generally poor. Trialists should refer to the CONSORT statement extension for reporting trials of herbal medicine interventions.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Linkage of the A locus for the presence of anthocyanin and fs10.1, a major fruit-shape QTL in pepper.

The purple color of the foliage, flower and immature fruit of pepper ( Capsicum spp.) is a result of the accumulation of anthocyanin pigments in these tissues. The expression of anthocyanins is controlled by the incompletely dominant gene A. We have mapped A to pepper chromosome 10 in a Capsicum annuum (5226) x Capsicum chinense (PI 159234) F(2) population to a genomic region that also controls anthocyanin expression in two other Solanaceous species, tomato and potato, suggesting that variation for tissue-specific expression of anthocyanin pigments in these plants is controlled by an orthologous gene(s). We mapped an additional locus, Fc, for the purple anther filament in an F(2) population from a cross of IL 579, a C. chinense introgression line and its recurrent parent 100/63, to the same position as A, suggesting that the two loci are allelic. The two anthocyanin loci were linked to a major quantitative trait locus, fs10.1, for fruit-shape index (ratio of fruit length to fruit width), that also segregated in the F(2) populations. This finding verified the observation of Peterson in 1959 of linkage between fruit color and fruit-shape genes in a cross between round and elongated-fruited parents. The linkage relationship in pepper resembles similar linkage in potato, in which anthocyanin and tuber-shape genes were found linked to each other in a cross of round and elongated-tuber parents. It is therefore possible that the shape pattern of distinct organs such as fruit and tuber in pepper and potato is controlled by a similar gene(s).

Anthocyanins↗
PubMed2005

Development of sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) primers for the detection of Phyto.5.2, a major QTL for resistance to Phytophthora capsici Leon. in pepper.

Phytophthora capsici causes devastating disease on many crop species, including Capsicum. Resistance in Capsicum annuum is genetically and physiologically complex. A panel of Capsicum germplasm that included genotypes from both C. annuum and C. chinense showing highly resistant, highly susceptible and intermediate or tolerant responses to the pathogen, respectively, was screened with a series of randomly amplified polymorphic sequence primers to determine which genomic regions contribute to the highest level of resistance. One primer, OpD04, amplified a single band only in those C. annuum and C. chinense genotypes showing the highest level of resistance. The amplified product was cloned, sequenced and used to design longer primers in order to generate a sequence characterized amplified region marker which was then mapped in a reference mapping population and a screened population segregating for resistance to P. capsici. These primers were observed to define a locus on pepper chromosome 5 tightly linked to Phyto.5.2, one of six quantitative trait loci (QTL) previously reported to contribute to P. capsici resistance. These results indicate that the Phyto.5.2 QTL may be widely distributed in highly resistant germplasm and provide improved resolution for this QTL. This work also defines the first breeding tools for this system, allowing for the rapid selection of genotypes likely to be highly resistant to P. capsici.

Capsicum↗
PubMed2006

A field test of the directed deterrence hypothesis in two species of wild chili.

The directed deterrence hypothesis posits that secondary metabolites in ripe fruit function to deter fruit consumption by vertebrates that do not disperse seeds, while not impacting consumption by those that do. We tested this hypothesis in two species of wild chilies (Capsicum spp.). Both produce fruits that contain capsaicinoids, the compounds responsible for the pungency of chilies. Previous work suggests seed-dispersing birds but not seed-destroying rodents consume chili fruits, presumably because rodents are deterred by capsaicin. However, fruit removal from chili plants by rodents and other mammals has not been previously explored. Because laboratory rodents can develop a preference for capsaicin, it is quite possible that wild rodents are natural consumers of chili fruits. We monitored the fate of 125 marked fruits of Capsicum chacoense and 291 fruits of Capsicum annuum. For both species, essentially all fruit removal occurred during the day, when rodents are inactive. Video monitoring revealed fruit removal only by birds, mostly by species known to disperse chili seeds in viable condition. Furthermore, these species are from taxonomic groups that tend to specialize on lipid-rich fruits. Both species of chili produce fruits that are unusually high in lipids (35% in C. chacoense, 24% in C. annuum). These results support the directed deterrence hypothesis and suggest that fruiting plants distinguish between seed predators and seed dispersers by producing fruits that repel the former and attract the latter.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Accumulation and transport of phenol, 2-nitrophenol, and 4-nitrophenol in plant cuticles.

Partition (K) and permeance (P) coefficients have been determined for phenol, 2-nitrophenol, and 4-nitrophenol with isolated cuticles from mature tomato (Lycopersicon) and green pepper (Capsicum) fruits and from the adaxial surface of rubber (Ficus) leaves. Plant cuticular membranes (CM) are composed of a lipophilic, insoluble polymer matrix (MX) membrane and soluble cuticular lipids (SCL). Partition coefficients of the phenols (pH 3.0) for the system MX/buffer (MX/b) ranged from 43.6 to 164.9 and could be predicted from n-octanol/buffer (o/b) partition coefficients using the equation log KMX/b = 0.363 + 0.952 log Ko/b where (r = 0.986). In CM the K values were lower, especially for 4-nitrophenol, ranging from 32.4 to 110.8. The role of hydrogen bonding in partitioning of phenols into cuticles is discussed. Permeance coefficients for the cuticular membranes [P(CM)] ranged from 10(-10) (Ficus) to 10(-8) m sec-1 (Lycopersicon, Capsicum), with 2-nitrophenol permeating more rapidly than the other two phenols. Extraction of the SCL increased the permeance coefficients [P(MX)] by factors of approximately 5 (Lycopersicon), 50 (Capsicum), and 1000 (Ficus), respectively. The transport-limiting layer in plant cuticles acts as a diffusion and solubility barrier.

Absorption↗
PubMed2003

Peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of capsaicinoids: steady-state and transient-state kinetic studies.

Capsaicinoids are the pungent compounds in Capsicum fruits (i.e., "hot" peppers). Peroxidases catalyze capsaicinoid oxidation and may play a central role in their metabolism. However, key kinetic aspects of peroxidase-catalyzed capsaicinoid oxidation remain unresolved. Using transient-state methods, we evaluated horseradish peroxidase compound I and II reduction by two prominent capsaicinoids (25 degrees C, pH 7.0). We determined rate constants approaching 2 x 10(7) and 5 x 10(5)M(-1)s(-1) for compound I and compound II reduction, respectively. We also determined k(app) values for steady-state capsaicinoid oxidation approaching 8 x 10(5)M(-1)s(-1) (25 degrees C, pH 7.0). Accounting for stoichiometry, these are in excellent agreement with constants for compound II reduction, suggesting that this reaction governs capsaicinoid-dependent peroxidase turnover. Ascorbate rapidly reduced capsaicinoid radicals, assisting in the determination of the kinetic constants reported. Because ascorbate accumulates in Capsicum fruits, it may also be an important determinant for capsaicinoid content and preservation in Capsicum fruits and related products.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

[Study on the identification of genomic modified foods].

Nucleotide-based amplification method is an important system for the identification of genomic modified foods (GMF). Roundup Ready Soybeans (Monsanto company), Bt 176 GM maize (Novartis/Ciba-Geigy company) and Cecropin D capsicum was used as material to search for the feasibility of investigating the safety of GMF by PCR method. Primers specific for inserted genes and crop endogenous genes in Roundup Ready Soybeans, Bt 176 maize and Cecropin D capsicum were applied. The discrimination system for GM soybeans, GM maize and GM capsicum from the counterpart of non-GM products and the detection system for correlating marker genes and transgenes are established. The method was easy and fast, and the corresponding results fixed the standard or declared data.

Capsicum↗
PubMed2000

Candidate gene analysis of organ pigmentation loci in the Solanaceae.

Ten structural genes from the Capsicum (pepper) carotenoid biosynthetic pathway have been localized on a (Capsicum annuum x Capsicum chinense)F(2) genetic map anchored in Lycopersicon (tomato). The positions of these genes were compared with positions of the same genes in tomato when known, and with loci from pepper, potato, and tomato that affect carotenoid levels in different tissues. C2, one of three phenotypically defined loci determining pepper fruit color, cosegregated with phytoene synthase. The capsanthin-capsorubin synthase (Ccs) locus, shown previously to cosegregate with Y, another pepper fruit color locus, mapped to pepper chromosome 6. Other structural genes in pepper corresponded to loci affecting carotenoid production as follows: Ccs in pepper and the B locus for hyperaccumulation of beta-carotene in tomato fruit mapped to homeologous regions; the position of the lycopene beta-cyclase gene in pepper may correspond to the lutescent-2 mutation in tomato; and the lycopene epsilon-cyclase locus in pepper corresponded to the lycopene epsilon-cyclase locus/Del mutation for hyperaccumulation of delta-carotene in tomato fruit. Additional associations were seen between the structural genes and previously mapped loci controlling quantitative variation in pepper and tomato fruit color. These results demonstrate that comparative analyses using candidate genes may be used to link specific metabolic phenotypes and loci that affect these phenotypes in related species.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed2006

Plant extracts affect in vitro rumen microbial fermentation.

Different doses of 12 plant extracts and 6 secondary plant metabolites were incubated for 24 h in diluted ruminal fluid with a 50:50 forage:concentrate diet. Treatments were: control (no additive), plant extracts (anise oil, cade oil, capsicum oil, cinnamon oil, clove bud oil, dill oil, fenugreek, garlic oil, ginger oil, oregano oil, tea tree oil, and yucca), and secondary plant metabolites (anethol, benzyl salicylate, carvacrol, carvone, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol). Each treatment was supplied at 3, 30, 300, and 3,000 mg/L of culture fluid. At 3,000 mg/L, most treatments decreased total volatile fatty acid concentration, but cade oil, capsicum oil, dill oil, fenugreek, ginger oil, and yucca had no effect. Different doses of anethol, anise oil, carvone, and tea tree oil decreased the proportion of acetate and propionate, which suggests that these compounds may not be nutritionally beneficial to dairy cattle. Garlic oil (300 and 3,000 mg/L) and benzyl salicylate (300 and 3,000 mg/L) reduced acetate and increased propionate and butyrate proportions, suggesting that methane production was inhibited. At 3,000 mg/L, capsicum oil, carvacrol, carvone, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamon oil, clove bud oil, eugenol, fenugreek, and oregano oil resulted in a 30 to 50% reduction in ammonia N concentration. Careful selection and combination of these extracts may allow the manipulation of rumen microbial fermentation.

Ammonia↗
PubMed2005

QTLs mapping for fruit size and shape in chromosomes 2 and 4 in pepper and a comparison of the pepper QTL map with that of tomato.

Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping for fruit weight and shape in pepper (Capsicum spp.) was performed using C. chinense and C. frutescens introgression lines of chromosomes 2 and 4. In chromosome 2, a single major fruit-weight QTL, fw2.1, was detected in both populations that explained 62% of the trait variation. This QTL, as well as a fruit-shape QTL, fs2.1, which had a more minor effect, were localized to the tomato fruit-shape gene ovate. The cloned tomato fruit-weight QTL, fw2.2, did not play a major role in controlling fruit size variations in pepper. In chromosome 4, two fruit-weight QTLs, fw4.1 and fw4.2, were detected in the same genomic regions in both mapping populations. In addition, a single fruit-shape QTL was detected in each of the mapping populations that co-localized with one of the fruit-weight QTLs, suggesting pleiotropy or close linkage of the genes controlling size and shape. fw2.1 and fw4.2 represent major fruit-weight QTLs that are conserved in the three Capsicum species analyzed to date for fruit-size variations. Co-localization of the pepper QTLs with QTLs identified for similar traits in tomato suggests that the pepper and tomato QTLs are orthologous. Compared to fruit-shape QTLs, fruit-weight QTLs were more often conserved between pepper and tomato. This implies that different modes of selection were employed for these traits during domestication of the two Solanaceae species.

Capsicum↗
PubMed2006

Exploitation of pepper EST-SSRs and an SSR-based linkage map.

As genome and cDNA sequencing projects progress, a tremendous amount of sequence information is becoming publicly available. These sequence resources can be exploited for gene discovery and marker development. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers are among the most useful because of their great variability, abundance, and ease of analysis. By in silico analysis of 10,232 non-redundant expressed sequence tags (ESTs) in pepper as a source of SSR markers, 1,201 SSRs were found, corresponding to one SSR in every 3.8 kb of the ESTs. Eighteen percent of the SSR-ESTs were dinucleotide repeats, 66.0% were trinucleotide, 7.7% tetranucleotide, and 8.2% pentanucleotide; AAG (14%) and AG (12.4%) motifs were the most abundant repeat types. Based on the flanking sequences of these 1,201 SSRs, 812 primer pairs that satisfied melting temperature conditions and PCR product sizes were designed. 513 SSRs (63.1%) were successfully amplified and 150 of them (29.2%) showed polymorphism between Capsicum annuum 'TF68' and C. chinense 'Habanero'. Dinucleotide SSRs and EST-SSR markers containing AC-motifs were the most polymorphic. Polymorphism increased with repeat length and repeat number. The polymorphic EST-SSRs were mapped onto the previously generated pepper linkage map, using 107 F(2) individuals from an interspecific cross of TF68 x Habanero. One-hundred and thirtynine EST-SSRs were located on the linkage map in addition to 41 previous SSRs and 63 RFLP markers, forming 14 linkage groups (LGs) and spanning 2,201.5 cM. The EST-SSR markers were distributed over all the LGs. This SSR-based map will be useful as a reference map in Capsicum and should facilitate the use of molecular markers in pepper breeding.

Capsicum↗
PubMed2004

Molecular characterization of pepper germin-like protein as the novel PR-16 family of pathogenesis-related proteins isolated during the resistance response to viral and bacterial infection.

To understand the molecular defense mechanism controlling the hypersensitive response (HR) better, we examined the hot pepper plant (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Bugang), which exhibits an HR in response to infection by Tobacco mosaic virus pathotype P0 (TMV-P0). A full-length cDNA clone was isolated by differential screening of a cDNA library that was constructed with mRNA extracted from hot pepper leaves during the resistance response to TMV-P0. The predicted amino acid sequence of the cDNA clone exhibited a high sequence similarity to germin-like protein (GLP). The CaGLP1 (Capsicum annuum GLP1) cDNA contains a single open reading frame of 660 bp encoding 220 amino acid residues. Upon inoculation with TMV or Xanthomonas, CaGLP1 transcripts were specifically accumulated in the incompatible interaction but not in the compatible interaction. In plants treated with salicylic acid (SA) or ethephon, which are signal molecules in the defense-related signal transduction pathway, CaGLP1 transcripts were accumulated rapidly. As far as we know, this is the first report that plant GLPs can be specifically induced during a defense response against viral infection. These data suggest that in the hot pepper plant CaGLP1 may be involved in the defense response to viral pathogens, and thus be classified as a new family of PR proteins, 'PR-16'.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

Where did the chili get its spice? Biogeography of capsaicinoid production in ancestral wild chili species.

The biogeography of pungency in three species of wild chili in the chaco and surrounding highland habitats of southeastern Bolivia is described. We report that Capsicum chacoense, C. baccatum, and C. eximium are polymorphic for production of capsaicin and its analogs, such that completely pungent and completely nonpungent individuals co-occur in some populations. In C. chacoense, the density of plants and the proportion of pungent plants increased with elevation. Above 900 m, all individuals in all populations except two were pungent; nonpungent individuals in at least one of the two polymorphic populations were likely a result of spreading by humans. The occurrence of pungent and nonpungent individuals in three species of ancestral Capsicum and the geographic variation of pungency within species suggest that production of capsaicin and its analogs entails both costs and benefits, which shift from one locality to another. Determining the selection pressures behind such shifts is necessary to understand the evolution of pungency in chilies.

Capsaicin↗
PubMed1984

Effects of oral chemical irritation on taste.

Oral irritation was induced by rinses with capsicum oleoresin and with piperine, constituents of red and black pepper, respectively. The perceived intensities of two concentrations of each of four tastants representing the four classical taste qualities were evaluated after rinsing with these irritants. Comparing taste intensity after rinses with capsicum and after control rinses with emulsifying agents or water, there were significant decrements in taste intensity of citric acid and quinine, and on one concentration of sucrose, but no effect on salt. The effects of piperine were more broad, with significant decrements in perceived intensity relative to emulsion controls for all substances.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Effect of different Thai traditional processing of various hot chili peppers on urethane-induced somatic mutation and recombination in Drosophila melanogaster: assessment of the role of glutathione transferase activity.

Four different Thai traditional chili peppers, namely bird pepper (Capsicum frutescens), red chili spur peppers (Capsicum annuum), green bell peppers and sweet pepper (C. annuum) were investigated for their antimutagenic properties. Each chili was prepared in three formulations commonly used for chili food processing; raw paste (chili ground in water), pickled in vinegar or stir-fried in palm oil. Each sample was tested for its antimutagenic effect against urethane by using the somatic mutation and recombination of wing hair of Drosophila melanogaster as an indicator. Three-day-old larvae, trans-heterozygous for two genetic markers, multiple wing hairs mwh and orrigon (ORR;flr3), were exposed to urethane alone or in combination with each chili formulation. The various processing methods for chilies differentially extracted the antimutagenic chili components. The specific chili as well as the method of processing influenced the observed antimutagenic properties against urethane. This suggested each chili contains a unique complex mixture of many antimutagens. Co-treatment and pre-treatment experiments showed that both direct and indirect protective mechanisms are involved in an 'activation' process to give antimutagenesis effects. An association between antigenotoxicity and glutathione transferase activity could not be established.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Antimutagenic activity of carotenoids in green peppers against some nitroarenes.

In Mexico, as well as in Central and South American countries, the consumption of peppers (Capsicum annuum) has been tradition for thousands of years; the per capita dietary intake of peppers is about 40 g/day. Peppers are an important source of beta-carotene and vitamin A, which have antimutagenic and/or anticarcinogenic properties. In the present study, Salmonella typhimurium tester strain YG1024 in the plate-incorporation test was used to examine the antimutagenicity of carotenois extracted from five different types of Capsicum spp. ('Chilaca', 'Poblano', 'Serrano', 'Jalapeño' and 'Pimiento') which were chosen, based on their consumption and availability on the local market. Extracts from these peppers were tested against 1-6-dinitropyrene (1,6-DNP) and 1,8-dinitropyrene (1,8-DNP) mutagenicity. Dose-response mutagenicity curves of 1-NP; 1,6-DNP and 1,8-DNP were obtained. For the antimutagenicity studies, doses of 0.05 microgram/plate, 0.20 ng/plate and 0.06 ng/plate for 1-NP, 1,6-DPN and 1,8-DNP respectively were chosen, and the number of net revertants/plate were 1008 for 1-NP, 512 for 1,6-DNP, and 712 for 1,8-DPN. Trans-beta-carotene and the extracts were not toxic to the bacteria at the concentrations tested. The extracts obtained from the peppers showed more inhibition than pure trans-beta-carotene on 1-NP; 1,6-DNP and 1,8-DNP mutagenicity. Chilaca pepper extract required 0.36 g (34 nmol expressed as trans-beta-carotene equivalents) of fresh pepper to inhibit 94% on 1-NP mutagenicity, 78% on 1,6-DNP mutagenicity and 84% on 1,8-DNP mutagenicity. Bell pepper ('Pimiento') extract required 1.53 g (50 nmol expressed as trans-beta-carotene) to obtain 87%, 79% and 73% inhibition on 1-NP; 1,6-DNP and 1,8-DNP mutagenicity respectively. Since pure beta-carotene inhibited only approximately 50% the mutagenicity of nitroarenes, these results suggest that each one of the pepper extracts have more than one antimutagenic compound (e.g., beta-carotene and xanthophylls) and those functional nutrients apparently have a synergistic effect.

Antimutagenic Agents↗
PubMed1998

Toxicologic evaluation of pepper spray as a possible weapon for the Dutch police force: risk assessment and efficacy.

The efficacy and possible health risks of pepper spray were evaluated. In a number of countries, pepper spray is being used by police forces to aid in arresting aggressive individuals. Pepper spray is commercially available as a canister filled with Capsicum extract, which contains capsaicin as the active component. When applied in the form of a spray, it causes an acute inflammation, and humans involuntarily close their eyes, experience a burning feeling on the skin, and are usually rapidly incapacitated. Use by the U.S. police was successful in subduing aggressive individuals in 90% of cases, and a reduction of injury to both police and arrested individuals was noted. In general, pepper spray appeared to be a relatively safe weapon with small risk of causing acute physical harm. Despite this evidence, a number of fatalities were reported in the United States following the use of pepper spray. However, it was concluded that it was not the pepper spray but rather other factors such as drugs and hog-tying that contributed to the cause of death. In only 1 case, that of an asthmatic man, was it concluded that the use of pepper spray contributed to the cause of death. Much attention has been paid to possible genotoxic effects of Capsicum extract such as mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. It was concluded that the risk of long-term health effects is negligible. Because pepper spray may induce bronchoconstriction, people suffering from chronic obstructive lung disease may be hypersensitive to it. Although the results of one study indicate that asthmatics do not develop additional bronchoconstriction following inhalation of capsaicin, the number of experimental data are too few to draw sound conclusions.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2005

The Pun1 gene for pungency in pepper encodes a putative acyltransferase.

Pungency in Capsicum fruits is due to the accumulation of the alkaloid capsaicin and its analogs. The biosynthesis of capsaicin is restricted to the genus Capsicum and results from the acylation of an aromatic moiety, vanillylamine, by a branched-chain fatty acid. Many of the enzymes involved in capsaicin biosynthesis are not well characterized and the regulation of the pathway is not fully understood. Based on the current pathway model, candidate genes were identified in public databases and the literature, and genetically mapped. A published EST co-localized with the Pun1 locus which is required for the presence of capsaicinoids. This gene, AT3, has been isolated and its nucleotide sequence has been determined in an array of genotypes within the genus. AT3 showed significant similarity to acyltransferases in the BAHD superfamily. The recessive allele at this locus contains a deletion spanning the promoter and first exon of the predicted coding region in every non-pungent accession tested. Transcript and protein expression of AT3 was tissue-specific and developmentally regulated. Virus-induced gene silencing of AT3 resulted in a decrease in the accumulation of capsaicinoids, a phenotype consistent with pun1. In conclusion, gene mapping, allele sequence data, expression profile and silencing analysis collectively indicate that the Pun1 locus in pepper encodes a putative acyltransferase, and the pun1 allele, used in pepper breeding for nearly 50 000 years, results from a large deletion at this locus.

Acyltransferases↗