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PubMed2002

The Human Cloning Prohibition Act of 2001: vagueness and federalism.

On July 31, 2001, the U.S. House of Representatives passed The Human Cloning Prohibition Act of 2001. The legislation proposes a complete ban on somatic cell nuclear transfer to create cloned human embryos; it threatens transgressors with criminal punishment and civil fines. House Bill 2505 is the first human cloning prohibition to pass either chamber of Congress. This note argues that the bill is unconstitutionally vague and inconsistent with the Supreme Court's recent Commerce Clause jurisprudence.

Cloning, Organism↗
PubMed2004

Incentives for organ donation: some ethical issues.

Objections to commerce in organs has not stopped the spread of such practice around the world. In most countries the gap between supply and demand for organs continues to increase. Kidneys from living donors are considered a valuable addition to the donor pool, and in a more acquisitive world, donor incentives are becoming thinkable, even acceptable. Current incentives for cadaver and living organ donation are reviewed from ethical and legal perspectives. A new principle of reimbursement for the living donor's risk and pain is defined and presented for debate.

Cadaver↗
PubMed2004

[The ginseng growing district, taxation and trade in ancient Korea].

The very first record of ginseng in the Korean peninsula dates back to early 6th century A.D., with its concentration in Chinese sources. Regardless of the fact that the Korean ginseng was introduced to China before th birth of CHrist, there is no writing about it for 500 years. This is because the Chinese substituted Korean ginseng for the Chinese one, which was cultivated around the Shangdang Area. The ginseng, however, is greatly influenced by natural environment and its native area bing Manchurian and the Korean peninsula. It is believed that ginseng range from the northern mountains of Pyongando and Hamkyongdo provincnes to the southern Taebaek and Sobaek mountains in Korea. Especially the area of Madasan(Baekdusan?) mountain was well-known for ginseng-growing district. The ginseng taxation of the Three Kingdoms period seems to have gone through certain changes along the development stages of the ancient state. The first taxation stage is estimated to be in the form of a tribute. Afterwards, as the governing power of central government was gradually strengthened in the subjugated places, there was a major replacement from tributary form to actual goods levy. The actual areas of such tributary collection is unknown, but the Sejongshilok Chiriji (geographical records of Sejong chronicles) of the early Choson ear indicates 113 prefectures and countries as those which submit ginseng to the central government. These administrations provide permissible clues to the historic background of ginseng-taxed regions of the Three Kingdoms. The ginseng trade also is estimated to have flourished in ancient Korea through the Han commanderies of China. However, the writings of Korean ginseng trade is non-existent until 6th century A.D.. Such phenomenon can be attributed to few reasons. First, the Chinese took little interest in Korean ginseng as they believed they had their own native ginseng in China. Second, same ignorance resulted from its inflowing but new feature. Third, active communication became impossible as the Goguryo-China relations deteriorated overall after the closing of the commanderies. Nevertheless, ginseng eventually was properly introduced into China as the relations between regions improved after the 5th century A.D., which led the Chinese to realize the difference between Chinese and Korean ginseng. So it is estimated that such causes generated the real beginning of ginseng records in the 6th century. Based on the remaining texts, it can be inferred that trade in the Three Kingdoms era usually was conducted in each kingdom were all different, which was reflected in their respective contact with China. Such characteristics must have directly influenced their ginseng trade with China as well. For example, Shilla was only able to perform major ginseng commerce with China from the 7th century. There are various records of ginseng trade in Unified Shilla period, owing mostly to the previous tributary trade. Additionally, there is a case in which a certain individual presented Korean ginseng to a Chinese, as well as a case of Shilla ginseng trade in Japan. Aforementioned examples clearly illustrate that the fundamental structure of ginseng trade in East Asia was completed during the Unified Shilla period.

Commerce↗
PubMed2005

Regional strategies for global leadership.

The leaders of such global powerhouses as GE, Wal-Mart, and Toyota seem to have grasped two crucial truths: First, far from becoming submerged by the rising tide of globalization, geographic and other regional distinctions may in fact be increasing in importance. Second, regionally focused strategies, used in conjunction with local and global initiatives, can significantly boost a company's performance. The business and economic data reveal a highly regionalized world. For example, trade within regions, rather than across them, drove the surge of international commerce in the second half of the twentieth century. Regionalization is also apparent in foreign direct investment, companies' international sales, and competition among the world's largest multinationals. Harvard Business School Professor Pankaj Ghemawat says that the most successful companies employ five types of regional strategies in addition to--or even instead of--global ones: home base, portfolio, hub, platform, and mandate. Some companies adopt the strategies in sequence, but the most nimble switch from one to another and combine approaches as their markets and businesses evolve. At Toyota, for example, exports from the home base continue to be substantial even as the company builds up an international manufacturing presence. And as Toyota achieves economies of scale and scope with a strong network of hubs, the company also pursues economies of specialization through interregional mandates. Embracing regional strategies requires flexibility and creativity. A company must decide what constitutes a region, choose the most appropriate strategies, and mesh those strategies with the organization's existing structures. In a world that is neither truly global nor truly local, finding ways of coordinating within and across regions can deliver a powerful competitive advantage.

Commerce↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Occupational medicine. The science of accounting.

Accounting is inextricably linked to professional practice, industry and commerce. Having knowledge of some fundamental concepts may ease the burdens imposed by the need to maintain accounting records and help occupational health professionals to operate better within the corporate realm. The material in this chapter is intended to provide a bare-bones introduction to accounting for the novice and a brief review for those with more experience. More advanced material is contained in Chapter 4.

Accounting↗
PubMed1987

The used tire trade: a mechanism for the worldwide dispersal of container breeding mosquitoes.

Modern transportation methods have facilitated an extensive trade in used tires at the national and international level. The history and reasons for this trade are described. Comprehensive data on United States imports and United States, Japanese, and Korean exports of used tires for the period 1978-85 reveal an unprecedented potential for the worldwide dispersal of important vector mosquitoes such as Aedes albopictus and Ae. aegypti. Other articles of commerce with similar potential may await recognition.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Culture and psychology in organ transplantation.

The cultural and psychological dimensions of organ transplantation are often overlooked in the process of meeting its exacting technical requirements. This new branch of medicine has brought with it new ways of understanding death, human rights, commerce, gift giving, and ethics. It produces strong emotions in recipients, donors and transplanters alike. These factors need to be taken fully into consideration if organ transplantation is to evolve in ways that are felt to be beneficial for all concerned.

Attitude to Death↗
PubMed1981

Congenital color blindness.

The term "color blind" is encountered frequently in areas pertaining to health, commerce, art, and entertainment, but in these cases it is generally not appropriate. Complete color blindness or achromasy is rare, but weakness or absence of discrimination to certain colors can be found in at least 8% of the male population. The most useful description of these color defects is in terms of hue and saturation, thresholds of which can be plotted as polar coordinates on a circular diagram. Plotting color thresholds with the chromagraph reveals more clearly than other clinical systems the true nature of color defects, as well as some inconsistencies in the traditional terminology and test methods. Fifty strongly color-defective subjects were tested by five different methods and the results compared. Normal values are also indicated.

Color Perception Tests↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Guidelines for medical and health information sites on the internet: principles governing AMA web sites. American Medical Association.

Access to medical information via the Internet has the potential to speed the transformation of the patient-physician relationship from that of physician authority ministering advice and treatment to that of shared decision making between patient and physician. However, barriers impeding this transformation include wide variations in quality of content on the Web, potential for commercial interests to influence online content, and uncertain preservation of personal privacy. To address these issues, the American Medical Association (AMA) has developed principles to guide development and posting of Web site content, govern acquisition and posting of online advertising and sponsorship, ensure site visitors' and patients' rights to privacy and confidentiality, and provide effective and secure means of e-commerce. While these guidelines were developed for the AMA Web sites and visitors to these sites, they also may be useful to other providers and users of medical information on the Web. These principles have been developed with the understanding that they will require frequent revision to keep pace with evolving technology and practices on the Internet. The AMA encourages review and feedback from readers, Web site visitors, policymakers, and all others interested in providing reliable quality information via the Web.

American Medical Association↗
PubMed2000

Public health law in a new century: part II: public health powers and limits.

The Constitution allocates public health powers among the federal government and the states. Federal public health powers include the authority to tax, spend, and regulate interstate commerce. These powers enable the federal government to raise revenues, allocate resources, economically penalize risk behavior, and broadly regulate in the public's interest. States have an inherent authority to protect, preserve, and promote the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of the people, termed police powers. Police powers enable states to preserve the public health in areas ranging from injury and disease prevention to sanitation, waste disposal, and environmental protection. The Rehnquist Court has emphasized the limits of federal powers and the primacy of states in public health issues affecting local concerns. Finally, the Constitution safeguards individual interests in autonomy, privacy, liberty, and property. The Supreme Court often defers to public health authorities in matters of public health, but engages in strict scrutiny if government interferes with fundamental freedoms or discriminates against a suspect class. Provided that they act justly and reasonably to avert a serious health threat, the Court should cede to agencies the power to act for the communal good. JAMA. 2000.

Contracts↗
PubMed2004

International efforts to control infectious diseases, 1851 to the present.

Many 21st-century observers explain international efforts to control infectious diseases as a function of globalization and recent transformations in international commerce, transportation, and human migration. However, these contemporary global health initiatives can be more fully understood by also exploring the origins of international health organizations and regulations, which were initially dedicated exclusively to stemming the tide of infectious epidemics. This article reviews 3 eras of international approaches to controlling infectious diseases (1851-1881, 1881-1945, and 1945 to the present) and concludes by assessing how nations have a strong fiscal and humanitarian incentive to invest in infectious disease control programs and infrastructures in and beyond their own borders.

Communicable Disease Control↗
PubMed1996

Spectrum of mutations in kidney, stomach, and liver from lacI transgenic mice recovered after treatment with tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate.

The flame retardant tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate (TDBP), once used in cotton sleep wear for children, is presently banned from commerce. It produces tumors in rodents in both a sex- and tissue-specific manner. The kidney is the main target for tumor formation in male and female rats, as well as in male mice. In contrast, tumors are formed in the liver of female animals. We have used lacI transgenic male B6C3F1 mice (Big Blue) to examine the induction of mutation in kidney, liver, and stomach after exposure to 150 mg/kg (2 days), 300 mg/kg (4 days), and 600 mg/kg (4 days) of TDBP. At the highest dose, the mutant frequency was approximately 50% above control values in the kidney (P < 0.01). A smaller increase was observed in the liver (P = 0.07), while no increase was seen in the stomach (P = 0.28). Sequence analysis of the recovered mutants showed a TDBP-specific change in mutation spectrum in kidney, which was not observed in liver and stomach. In kidney, a dose-dependent decrease in G:C-->A:T transitions, including at 5'-CpG-3' sites, was observed. This was accompanied by an increase in the loss of single G:C base pairs from approximately 3% to 15%. These results illustrate both the sensitivity and specificity of the lacI transgenic system in the analysis of tissue-specific mutation. This study also reinforces the importance of examining mutational spectra when mutant induction levels are low.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Genetic toxicology: impact on the next generation of toxicology.

In the early 1970s, we overestimated the range of applicability of the hypothesis that mutations were highly predictive of rodent cancer. Many substances that are nonmutagenesis in current screens are carcinogenic; some genotoxicants are not carcinogenic. Methods of quantitative risk assessment that were based on the 1970s' hypothesis of cancer induction are thus inherently limited. Current methods of classifying carcinogens and calculation of human risk must reflect recent understanding of the diversity of mechanisms of carcinogenicity. Screening for genotoxic potential has clearly helped to prevent highly toxic and high risk chemicals from being introduced into commerce. Additional attention, however, must now be focused on assessment and management of risk of those carcinogens and other toxicants that cause damage through mechanisms other than direct damage to DNA. While in the past we depended on the knowledge of chemists and genetic toxicologists to predict carcinogenic potential, on whom do we depend today? With the increasing complexity of our knowledge of the processes of carcinogenicity, it is likely that there will not be any single discipline that can meet the challenge. The more we learn, the more we will come to depend on a profile of information that encompasses the known mechanisms of cancer.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Small-area population estimates: a review of methods used in Britain in the 1990s.

"Population estimates are usually produced by local government administrations in Britain, for each small area within their authority. Increasing interest has been shown by commerce and by central government. Five main methods are identified: apportionment, ratio change, additive change, cohort survival, and local censuses. Estimation strategies also vary according to available data, the detail in which a population is estimated, and the precise combination of elements chosen from one or more of the main methods. The use of methods at the beginning of the 1990s is surveyed in this paper, and examples given. The accuracy of each main method is quantified from empirical data collated by the Estimating with Confidence project. Likely developments towards the end of the 1990s are reviewed."

Developed Countries↗
PubMed1998

The epidemiology of tuberculosis in South Africa.

Reports by reliable observers indicate that tuberculous disease did not occur to any great extent amongst South Africa's indigenous peoples prior to European colonization. Colonization introduced sources of infection and caused rapid urbanization for purposes of commerce and trade. By the start of the 20th century tuberculosis was recognized as a common health problem amongst the Black and Coloured peoples of South Africa. National notification commenced in 1921 and an incidence of 43 per 100,000 rose to 365 per 100,000 in 1958 and declined to 162 per 100,000 in 1986 before rising again to 221 per 100,000 in 1993. High incidences have been consistently recorded amongst the Coloured population of the Western Cape Province: in 1993 713 per 100,000 compared to the national incidence of 225 per 100,000. Using a computerized geographical information system the precise distribution of tuberculosis in two adjacent underprivileged, mainly Coloured communities, with a combined population of 34,000, is being studied. From 1985 to 1994 4044 notified tuberculosis cases gave an incidence of about 1200 per 100,000, varying from 78 to 3150 per 100,000 for the 39 enumerator subdistricts used for census purposes, and was highest in those with the lowest income. Of 5345 housing units 1835 (34%) housed at least one case of tuberculosis and 483 (9%) three or more cases. IS6110 DNA fingerprinting of strains from this community has shown a high degree of strain diversity (209 out of 334 strains evaluated). Clustering, indicative of recent transmission, was found in only 30% of isolates in this high tuberculosis incidence community.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2000

Gemini Surfactants.

How easy it is to dismiss the humdrum surfactant! After all, its structure is unglamorous by present-day norms. And the surfactant has been entrenched in so many areas of commerce for so many decades that its chemistry might seem old and tired. The purpose of this review is to persuade the reader otherwise, all the while focusing on a remarkable new surfactant, the gemini. Geminis, the common name for "bis-surfactants", can self-assemble at concentrations almost a hundredfold lower than for corresponding conventional surfactants. Surface activity can be improved a thousandfold. Geminis have already shown promise in skin care, antibacterial regimens, construction of high-porosity materials, analytical separations, and solubilization processes. Scores of patents dealing with geminis have appeared in the last few years. Indeed, geminis might well turn out, in the opinion of some, to be more useful to "l'homme de la rue" than crown ethers or fullerenes. This review delves into such topics as synthesis, critical micellization concentration, aggregate size and shape, gels, vesicles, and films. The information comes from scientists all over the world; one might say that gemini research is bathed in a continuous sunlight or summer. No prior knowledge of colloid chemistry is presupposed in this article.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1985

Transferring a national information system from the public sector to the private sector--how the Administration on Aging did it.

The Administration on Aging (AoA) sponsored a national information system known as the SCAN system. The SCAN bibliographic database went on-line in March 1982. Congress, however, had repealed the authority for the clearinghouse, so the Government let all of the services of SCAN expire by September 1982. The Government then tried to keep the SCAN information accessible by offering it to the private sector. The Government solicited applicants through both the Federal Register and the Commerce Business Daily. As a result, the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) and AoA signed an agreement calling for AARP to make such of the SCAN information accessible on-line and to update it.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

Electronic doors to education: study of high school website accessibility in Iowa.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and Sections 504 and 508 of the Rehabilitation Act, prohibit discrimination against people with disabilities in all aspects of daily life, including education, work, and access to places of public accommodations. Increasingly, these antidiscrimination laws are used by persons with disabilities to ensure equal access to e-commerce, and to private and public Internet websites. To help assess the impact of the anti-discrimination mandate for educational communities, this study examined 157 website home pages of Iowa public high schools (52% of high schools in Iowa) in terms of their electronic accessibility for persons with disabilities. We predicted that accessibility problems would limit students and others in obtaining information from the web pages as well as limiting ability to navigate to other web pages. Findings show that although many web pages examined included information in accessible formats, none of the home pages met World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) standards for accessibility. The most frequent accessibility problem was lack of alternative text (ALT tags) for graphics. Technical sophistication built into pages was found to reduce accessibility. Implications are discussed for schools and educational institutions, and for laws, policies, and procedures on website accessibility.

Persons with Disabilities↗