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PubMed1992

The injury experience of the competitive athlete with a disability: prevention implications.

The purpose of this project was to describe the injury experiences of athletes with disabilities. A cross-disability instrument was developed to measure variables of interest. A retrospective survey was administered to 426 athletes who participated at the 1989 national competition of the National Wheelchair Athletic Association (NWAA), United States Association for Blind Athletes (USABA), and the United States Cerebral Palsy Athletic Association (USCPAA). The definition of injury was any trauma to the participant that occurred during any practice, training, or competition session that caused the athlete to stop, limit, or modify participation for 1 d or more. Thirty-two percent (N = 137) of the total respondents reported at least one time-loss injury. By organization, 26% of the total injuries were from the NWAA and 37% were from the USABA and USCPAA, respectively. The shoulder and arm/elbow accounted for 57% of the total NWAA injuries. Fifty-three percent of the injuries to the USABA athlete were to the lower extremity. Injuries to the USCPAA athlete were distributed among four body locations, knee (21%), shoulder (16%), forearm/wrist (16%), and leg/ankle (15%). The athlete with a disability demonstrated approximately the same percentage of injury as the athlete without a disability in similar sport activities. Biomechanical considerations of locomotion and specific sport skills should be analyzed by experts to reduce the percentage of injuries.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Depression, suicidal ideation, and substance use among adolescents. Are athletes at less risk?

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationship between participation in high school athletic programs and depression, suicidal ideation, and substance use, and to study the high-risk behaviors of suicidal ideation and substance use. DESIGN: Survey. SETTING: A suburban public high school in Kentucky. PARTICIPANTS: We received 823 (80%) responses from 1030 potential respondents. Athletes (ie, participation on a high school athletic team) were compared with non-athletes. MEASURES: Depression was measured by the Children's Depression Inventory by an index of suicidal ideation by an indicator of a past suicide attempt, and by current use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine. RESULTS: Thirty percent of the sample participate in school athletic teams. Athletes are less depressed, have less suicidal ideation and attempts, and are less likely to currently smoke cigarettes or marijuana. The use of smokeless tobacco and cocaine was not related to athletic participation. After controlling for demographic characteristics, no difference in alcohol use was found between athletes and nonathletes. CONCLUSIONS: Athletic participation is a marker for a decreased likelihood of depression and some high-risk behaviors in adolescents. Future research could help in creating alternative interventions beyond participation in varsity and junior varsity athletic teams.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Eating-disordered behaviors and personality characteristics of high school athletes and nonathletes.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether high school athletes are at risk for an eating disorder, whether personality characteristics differentiate athletes from nonathletes, and whether high levels of perfectionism put athletes at risk. METHOD: 318 high school athletes were randomly matched to 360 nonathletes. Comparisons were made by means of the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI), Restraint Scale, Risk Symptom Checklist, Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), and body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: Athletes did not have higher levels of disordered eating behaviors and attitudes than their nonathletic counterparts. Athletes had less negative views of life than nonathletes. However, perfectionistic tendencies may put some athletes at risk. DISCUSSION: High school athletes are not at greater risk for the development of an eating disorder than other students. Athlete's positive outlook on life and high self-efficacy may serve as protective factors. Alternatively, athletes may not be at risk until they train for one particular sport in a highly competitive environment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

The power spectral analysis of heart rate variability in athletes during dynamic exercise--Part I.

In this study, the effects of long-term physical training on autonomic function in athletes and the response of the autonomic nervous system to dynamic exercise were investigated in nonathletes and athletes with power spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV). This study was performed on 13 healthy subjects (5 athletes and 8 non athletes). Electrocardiographic (ECG) signals were continuously recorded during (1) 15 min of rest in a sitting position on a bicycle ergometer, (2) the dynamic exercise test to the point of exhaustion, and (3) a 15 min postexercise period. After the recorded ECG signals were sampled at 500 samples/s, the instantaneous HRV signal was constructed from the detected R peaks and then resampled at 4 Hz in order to obtain an evenly spaced time series applicable to power spectral analysis. After linear trends were removed by the robust locally weighted regression algorithm, the power spectrum of HRV was estimated for contiguous records of 512 samples by Burg's maximum entrophy method. HRV was quantified by determining the spectral area (power) in two frequency bands, low-frequency power (LF power: 0.05-0.15 Hz) and high-frequency power (HF power: 0.15-0.8 Hz), and their ratio. The comparison between athletes and nonathlete was performed in terms of the above-mentioned parameters. Although both groups showed similar trends in heart rate (HR) at all stages of protocols, HR in athletes was significantly lower than that in nonathletes during rest and postexercise. In athletes and nonathletes, LF and HF powers gradually decreased with exercise. As recovery progressed, they continued to increase gradually, but remained below resting level. During rest and postexercise, HF power in athletes was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than than in nonathletes. Also, the recovery of HR and HF powers during early recovery (PO1) was more rapid in athletes than in nonathletes. Both groups showed an attenuation of LF and HF powers during dynamic exercise. It is likely that, in athletes, the lower HR during rest and the more rapid recovery of HR postexercise was due to a high level of HF power, indicating that vagal activity was enhanced by the adaptive changes in neural regulation produced by long-term physical training.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Noninvasive evaluation of world class athletes engaged in different modes of training.

This study evaluated by noninvasive methods the cardiac structure and functional characteristics of world class athletes participating in different types of training programs. Fourteen subjects, including 4 strength-trained (discus and shot put), 4 endurance-trained (long distance runners), 4 decathlon-trained (strength and endurance), 2 wheelchair athletes and 31 college-age control subjects were evaluated using electrocardiography, M-mode echocardiography and maximal oxygen consumption. M-mode echocardiography measurements of left ventricular structure and function were compared before and after normalization for lean body weight. As expected, endurance athletes had greater maximal O2 consumption than the other groups (p less than 0.05). Before normalization for lean body weight, there were no significant differences in end-diastolic dimensions. After normalization, the endurance, wheelchair and control subjects had end-diastolic dimensions larger than those of strength athletes. Strength athletes appeared to have a much larger posterior wall and septal thickness than all groups except the decathlon athletes. However, when normalized, there was no difference among any of the groups. Previous investigators have attempted to determine "normalcy" of cardiac hypertrophy by looking at the ratio of left ventricular wall thickness to left ventricular radius. In the present study, the thickness to radius ratio in strength athletes was 33% greater than that in endurance athletes. It appears that the left ventricular wall thickness in the strength athletes occurred without a concomitant increase in left ventricular radius and that the left ventricular hypertrophy of world class athletes is related to the total increase in lean body weight. However, ventricular dimensions may be related more to the type of overload experienced.

Diastole↗
PubMed1990

Evaluation of prevalence of "doping" among Italian athletes.

To evaluate knowledge of, attitudes to, and use of illegal drugs and other forms of "doping" in sport 1015 Italian athletes and 216 coaches, doctors, and managers (technicians) were interviewed after selection on a quota basis. Overall, 30% of athletes, managers, and coaches and 21% of doctors indicated that athletic performance can be enhanced by drugs or other doping practices. Over 10% of athletes indicated a frequent use of amphetamines or anabolic steroids at national or international level, fewer athletes mentioning blood doping (7%) and beta-blockers (2%) or other classes of drugs. These proportions were 2-3 times higher for occasional use than for frequent use. Estimates by managers and coaches were much the same as those of athletes when allowance was made for larger random variation. 62% of athletes who acknowledged doping reported pressure to do so from coaches and managers. According to over 70% of athletes access to illegal substances was not difficult. Both athletes and technicians awarded higher scores to risk than to efficacy for any substance, although 42-67% of athletes and technicians regarded amphetamines and anabolic steroids as efficacious. 82% wanted stricter controls not only during competitions but also during training.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Epidemiology and prognostic implications of syncope in young competing athletes.

AIMS: This study was undertaken to evaluate the epidemiological features and the prognostic implications of syncope in young athletes. METHODS AND RESULTS: A cohort of 7568 young athletes (5132 males, 2436 females, aged 16.2 +/- 2.4) underwent a pre-participation evaluation. A syncopal spell in the last 5 years was reported by 474 athletes (6.2%). Syncope was unrelated with exercise in 411 athletes (86.7%), post-exertional in 57 (12.0%) and exertional in 6 (1.3%). All episodes of non-exertional or post-exertional syncope had the typical features of neurally-mediated fainting. The 6 athletes with exertional syncope underwent further testing allowing the diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in one case, and of right ventricular outflow tract tachycardia in another. The remaining 4 athletes only showed a positive response to tilt-testing. All athletes were followed for 6.4 +/- 3.1 years, during 48,066.6 person-years of follow-up. The recurrence rate was 20.3 per 1000 subject-years in athletes with non-exertional, and 19.2 per 1000 subject-years in athletes with post-exertional syncope. The incidence of first report of syncope was 2.2 per 1000 subject-years for non-exertional and 0.26 per 1000 subjects-years for post-exertional spells. No other adverse event was noted during follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: In young athletes, syncope occurring before the initial pre-participation screening has a neurally-mediated origin in most cases and shows a low recurrence rate. Exercise-related syncope is infrequent and is not associated with an adverse outcome in subjects without cardiovascular abnormalities. The incidence of new syncope during competitive activity is particularly low.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Impact of physical deconditioning on ventricular tachyarrhythmias in trained athletes.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this research was to evaluate the impact of athletic training and, in particular, physical deconditioning, on frequent and/or complex ventricular tachyarrhythmias assessed by 24-h ambulatory (Holter) electrocardiogram (ECG). BACKGROUND: Sudden deaths in athletes are usually mediated by ventricular tachyarrhythmias. METHODS: Twenty-four hour ambulatory ECGs were recorded at peak training and after a deconditioning period of 19 +/- 6 weeks (range, 12 to 24 weeks) in a population of 70 trained athletes selected on the basis of frequent and/or complex ventricular tachyarrhythmias (i.e., > or =2,000 premature ventricular depolarization [PVD] and/or > or =1 burst of non-sustained ventricular tachycardia [NSVT]/24 h). RESULTS: A significant decrease in the frequency and complexity of ventricular arrhythmias was evident after deconditioning: PVDs/24 h: 10,611 +/- 10,078 to 2,165 +/- 4,877 (80% reduction; p < 0.001) and NSVT/24 h: 6 +/- 22 to 0.5 +/- 2, (90% reduction; p = 0.04). In 50 of the 70 athletes (71%), ventricular arrhythmias decreased substantially after detraining (to <500 PVDs/24 h and no NSVT). Most of these athletes with reduced arrhythmias did not have structural cardiovascular abnormalities (37 of 50; 74%). Over the 8 +/- 4-year follow-up period, each of the 70 athletes survived without cardiac symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Frequent and/or complex ventricular tachyarrhythmias in trained athletes (with and without cardiovascular abnormalities) are sensitive to brief periods of deconditioning. In athletes with heart disease, the resolution of such arrhythmias with detraining may represent a mechanism by which risk for sudden death is reduced. Conversely, in athletes without cardiovascular abnormalities, reduction in frequency of ventricular tachyarrhythmias and the absence of cardiac events in the follow-up support the benign clinical nature of these rhythm disturbances as another expression of athlete's heart.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Prevalence and clinical significance of left atrial remodeling in competitive athletes.

OBJECTIVES: In the present study we assessed the distribution and clinical significance of left atrial (LA) size in the context of athlete's heart and the differential diagnosis from structural heart disease, as well as the proclivity to supraventricular arrhythmias. BACKGROUND: The prevalence, clinical significance, and long-term arrhythmic consequences of LA enlargement in competitive athletes are unresolved. METHODS: We assessed LA dimension and the prevalence of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias in 1,777 competitive athletes (71% of whom were males), free of structural cardiovascular disease, that were participating in 38 different sports. RESULTS: The LA dimension was 23 to 50 mm (mean, 37 +/- 4 mm) in men and 20 to 46 mm (mean, 32 +/- 4 mm) in women and was enlarged (i.e., transverse dimension > or = 40 mm) in 347 athletes (20%), including 38 (2%) with marked dilation (> or = 45 mm). Of the 1,777 athletes, only 14 (0.8%) had documented, symptomatic episodes of either paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (n = 5; 0.3%) or supraventricular tachycardia (n = 9; 0.5%), which together occurred in a similar proportion in athletes with (0.9%) or without (0.8%; p = NS) LA enlargement. Multivariate regression analysis showed LA enlargement in athletes was largely explained by left ventricular cavity enlargement (R2 = 0.53) and participation in dynamic sports (such as cycling, rowing/canoeing) but minimally by body size. CONCLUSIONS: In a large population of highly trained athletes, enlarged LA dimension > or = 40 mm was relatively common (20%), with the upper limits of 45 mm in women and 50 mm in men distinguishing physiologic cardiac remodeling ("athlete's heart") from pathologic cardiac conditions. Atrial fibrillation and other supraventricular tachyarrhythmias proved to be uncommon (prevalence < 1%) and similar to that in the general population, despite the frequency of LA enlargement. Left atrial remodeling in competitive athletes may be regarded as a physiologic adaptation to exercise conditioning, largely without adverse clinical consequences.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2006

Trunk muscle endurance tests: reliability, and gender differences in athletes.

Adequate trunk muscle endurance may play an important role in injury-free performance among athletes. However, reliability of tests of isometric trunk muscle endurance in common use has not been clearly established and few studies have reported normative data for athletes. This study first examined intra-rater and inter-rater reliability of the side bridge endurance test and a test of trunk flexor endurance in a group of non-athletes, then measured performance of a group of elite athletes on tests of trunk muscle endurance commonly used in the clinic. The side bridge endurance test and the trunk flexor endurance test were found to have high intra-rater and inter-rater reliability, albeit with relatively large standard error of measurement (S.E.M.) values. In contrast with previous studies of non-athletes, male athletes had equivalent holding times on the Biering-Sørensen trunk extensor endurance test to those of female athletes. However, female athletes had significantly lower holding times on the side bridge endurance tests than their male counterparts. The implication of the significant difference in endurance performance between male and female athletes in some muscle groups but not others is that testing and training of trunk muscle endurance should be 'multidirectional' for all athletes who aim to optimise performance and minimise injury risk.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Development and validation of a screening tool to identify eating disorders in female athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To develop and validate a screening tool to identify eating pathology in women athletes. DESIGN: Three cross-sectional subject groups were established: college women athletes diagnosed with eating disorders; college women athletes without eating pathology; college women who did not participate in athletics but were diagnosed with an eating disorder. The Female Athlete Screening Tool (FAST), and 3 valid psychometric measures were administered to subjects in all groups. Internal reliability, discriminant and concurrent validity were established. SUBJECTS/SETTINGS: Women college students between the ages of 18 and 23 years (n=41) from the University of Connecticut and St Joseph College were recruited. The athletes were screened for eating disorders by a sports medicine team. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Cronbach's alpha, one-way analysis of variance, and correlation analyses. RESULTS: Reliability analysis indicated a high internal consistency of the FAST (Cronbach's alpha = 0.87). Athletes with eating disorders scored significantly higher on the FAST as compared with athletes without eating pathology and nonathletes with eating disorders (P<.001), which demonstrated discriminant validity. Correlation analyses showed that the FAST was strongly correlated to the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (0.60, P<.05) and Eating Disorder Inventory (0.89, P<.001). APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Early detection of eating disorders can help prevent the onset or severity of a clinical eating disorder. By using the screening tool that has been validated for use in women athletes, dietetic professionals can quickly identify those athletes who need assistance with their aberrant eating habits.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

ECG variants and cardiac arrhythmias in athletes: clinical relevance and prognostic importance.

These findings permit the following conclusions on cardiac changes induced by high-performance sports and high levels of training. Sinus bradycardia and AV block can frequently be observed in athletes, but they do not require attention as long as they are asymptomatic or do not produce pauses exceeding 4 seconds. Persistent rather than transient second-degree AV block or Mobitz second- or third-degree AV block is an extremely unusual finding even in athletes and should be considered a sign of organic lesions until proved otherwise. Supraventricular and AV node ectopic beats are not more frequent in athletes than in the general population except for atrial fibrillation. WPW syndrome is of particular importance, since rapid conduction to the ventricle via the accessory AV pathway is possible, especially if there is a tendency toward atrial fibrillation. Likewise caution is required in athletes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Here hemodynamic deterioration must be anticipated with the occurrence of supraventricular tachycardia. Simple ventricular arrhythmias occur among athletes with the same frequency as in the general population, but they usually disappear with exercise. The occurrence of complex ventricular forms of arrhythmia should always prompt cardiologic examination in search of underlying cardiac disease, particularly hypertrophic or dilated cardiomyopathy. The presence of ventricular arrhythmias without evidence of underlying heart disease does not indicate a special or increased risk of sudden cardiac death. A higher incidence of right and/or left ventricular hypertrophy, exercise-reversible ST elevation, and exercise-reversible changes in T waves (T negativity, sharp and/or excessive T waves) can be considered physiologic changes in the ECGs of athletes. These changes correlate closely with the type of sports activity and degree of training and are reversible when the activity is stopped. Horizontal ST segment depression are by contrast very rare in athletes and should always be clarified by cardiologic examination. Exercise-induced sudden cardiac death in athletes is unusual without preexisting heart disease. The cause of sudden cardiac death among athletes less than 40 years of age can be predominantely ascribed to congenital heart diseases (such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or coronary anomalies). In athletes more than 40 years of age and with increasing age, coronary heart disease is the most frequent autopsy finding. A corresponding risk stratification should take these partial dangers into account.

Arrhythmias, Cardiac↗
PubMed1998

Asthma in United States Olympic athletes who participated in the 1996 Summer Games.

BACKGROUND: Asthma prevalence appears to be increasing in the general population. We sought to determine whether asthma prevalence has also increased in highly competitive athletes. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine how many United States Olympic athletes who were chosen to participate in the 1996 Summer Olympic Games had a past history of asthma or symptoms that suggested asthma or took asthma medications. METHODS: We analyzed responses to questions that asked about allergic and respiratory diseases on the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) Medical History Questionnaire that was completed by all athletes who were chosen to represent the US at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. RESULTS: Of the 699 athletes who completed the questionnaire, 107 (15.3%) had a previous diagnosis of asthma, and 97 (13.9%) recorded use of an asthma medication at some time in the past. One hundred seventeen (16.7%) reported use of an asthma medication, a diagnosis of asthma, or both (which was our basis for the diagnosis of asthma). Seventy-three (10. 4%) of the athletes were currently taking an asthma medication at the time that they were processed in Atlanta or noted that they took asthma medications on a permanent or semipermanent basis and were considered to have active asthma. Athletes who participated in cycling and mountain biking had the highest prevalence of having been told that they had asthma or had taken an asthma medication in the past (50%). Frequency of active asthma varied from 45% of cyclists and emountain bikers to none of the divers and weight lifters. Only about 11% of the athletes who participated in the 1984 Summer Olympic Games were reported to have had exercise-induced asthma on the basis of other criteria that may have been less restrictive. On the basis of these less restrictive criteria, more than 20% of the athletes who participated in the 1996 Olympic Games might have been considered to have had asthma. CONCLUSIONS: Asthma appeared to have been more prevalent in athletes who participated in the 1996 Summer Games than in the general population or in those who participated in the 1984 Summer Games. This study also suggests that asthma may influence the sport that an athlete chooses.

Asthma↗
PubMed2003

The ACE/DD genotype is associated with the extent of exercise-induced left ventricular growth in endurance athletes.

OBJECTIVES: We studied the impact of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)/DD genotype on morphologic and functional cardiac changes in adult endurance athletes. BACKGROUND: Trained athletes usually develop adaptive left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), and ACE gene polymorphisms may regulate myocardial growth. However, little is known about the impact of the ACE/DD genotype and D allele dose on the cardiac changes in adult endurance athletes. METHODS; Echocardiographic studies (including tissue Doppler) were performed in 61 male endurance athletes ranging in age from 25 to 40 years, with a similar period of training (15.6 +/- 4 h/week for 12.6 +/- 5.7 years). The ACE genotype (insertion [I] or deletion [D] alleles) was ascertained by polymerase chain reaction (DD = 27, ID = 31, and II = 3). Athletes with the DD genotype were compared with their ID counterparts. RESULTS: The DD genotype was associated with a higher left ventricular mass index (LVMI) than the ID genotype (162.6 +/- 36.5 g/m(2) vs. 141.6 +/- 34 g/m(2), p = 0.031), regardless of other confounder variables. As a result, 70.4% of DD athletes and only 42% of ID athletes met the criteria for LVH (p = 0.037). Although systolic and early diastolic myocardial velocities were similar in DD and ID subjects, a more prolonged E-wave deceleration time (DT) was observed in DD as compared with ID athletes, after adjusting for other biologic variables (210 +/- 48 ms vs. 174 +/- 36 ms, respectively; p = 0.008). Finally, a positive association between DT and myocardial systolic peak velocity (medial and lateral peak S(m)) was only observed in DD athletes (p = 0.013, r = 0.481). CONCLUSIONS: The ACE/DD genotype is associated with the extent of exercise-induced LVH in endurance athletes, regardless of other known biologic factors.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Structural features of the athlete heart as defined by echocardiography.

The morphologic concepts of the "athlete heart" have been enhanced and clarified over the last 10 years by virtue of M-mode echocardiographic studies performed on more than 1,000 competitive athletes. Long-term athletic training produces relatively mild but predictable alterations in cardiac structure that result in an increase in calculated left ventricular mass. This increase in mass observed in highly trained athletes is due to a mild increase in either transverse end-diastolic dimension of the left ventricle or left ventricular wall thickness, or both. Cardiac dimensions in athletes compared with matched control subjects show increases of about 10% for left ventricular end-diastolic dimension, about 15 to 20% for wall thickness and about 45% for calculated left ventricular mass. Furthermore, there is evidence that the modest degree of "physiologic" left ventricular hypertrophy (both the cavity dilation and wall thickening) observed in athletes is dynamic in nature, that is, it may develop rapidly within weeks or months after the initiation of vigorous conditioning and may be reversed in a similar time period after the cessation of training. Several echocardiographic studies also suggest that the precise alterations in cardiac structure associated with training may differ depending on the type of athletic activity undertaken (that is, whether training is primarily dynamic [isotonic] or static [isometric]). Although the ventricular septal to free wall thickness ratio (on M-mode echocardiogram) is almost always within normal limits (less than 1.3), occasionally an athlete will show mild asymmetric thickening of the anterior basal septum (usually 13 to 15 mm). This circumstance may mimic certain pathologic conditions characterized by primary left ventricular hypertrophy such as nonobstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The long-term significance of increased left ventricular mass in trained athletes has not been conclusively defined. However, there is no evidence at this time suggesting that this form of hypertrophy is itself deleterious to the athlete or predisposes to (or prevents) the natural occurrence of cardiovascular disease later in life.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

High school athletic participation, sexual behavior and adolescent pregnancy: a regional study.

PURPOSE: To determine whether high school athletic participation among adolescents in Western New York was associated with reduced rates of sexual behavior and pregnancy involvement. METHODS: A secondary analysis of data from the Family and Adolescent Study, a longitudinal study of a random sample of adolescents (ages 13-16 years) from 699 families living in households in Western New York. A general population sample was obtained with characteristics closely matching the census distributions in the area. Interview and survey methods provided data on athletic participation, frequency of sexual relations during the past year, and risk for pregnancy. Bivariate correlations were used to examine relationships among athletic participation, demographic and control variables, and measures of sexual behavior and pregnancy rates. Next, path analyses were done in order to test for hypothesized relationships between athletic participation, sexual behavior, and pregnancy involvement while controlling for age, race, income, family cohesion, and non-athletic forms of extracurricular activity. Variables that were significantly associated with sexual behavior and/or pregnancy involvement were presented for both sexes within the resulting multivariate models. RESULTS: Lower income and higher rates of sexual activity were associated with higher rates of pregnancy involvement for both sexes. Family cohesion was associated with lower sexual activity rates for both sexes. For girls, athletic participation was directly related to reduced frequency of sexual behavior and, indirectly, to pregnancy risk. Male athletes did not exhibit lower rates of sexual behavior and involvement with pregnancy than male non-athletes. Boys who participated in the arts, however, did report lower rates of sexual behavior and, indirectly, less involvement with pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Female adolescents who participated in sports were less likely than their non-athletic peers to engage in sexual activity and/or report a pregnancy. Among male adolescents, athletic participation was unrelated to sexual behavior and pregnancy involvement. Teen pregnancy prevention efforts for girls should consider utilizing sport as a strategic tool.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Sexual harassment and eating disorders in female elite athletes - a controlled study.

The aims were to examine the percentage of female elite athletes and controls reporting sexual harassment and abuse (SHAB), and whether a higher percentage of female athletes with eating disorders (ED) had experienced SHAB. A questionnaire was administered to the total population of female elite athletes (n = 660) and controls (n = 780) aged 15-39 years. Sexual harassment and abuse were measured through 11 questions, ranging from light to severe SHAB. In addition, questions about dietary-, menstrual- and training-history and the Eating Disorder Inventory were included. The response rate was 88% for athletes and 71% for controls. Athletes (n = 121) and controls (n = 81) classified as "at risk" for ED and non-ED controls participated in a clinical interview. A higher percentage of controls compared with athletes reported experiences of SHAB in general (59% vs. 51%, P < 0.001). A lower percentage of athletes had experienced SHAB inside sports than outside sport (28% vs. 39%, P < 0.001). A higher percentage of ED athletes than non-ED athletes had experienced SHAB (66% vs. 48%, P < 0.01), both inside sport and outside sport. In spite of the fact that a higher percentage of controls compared with athletes had experienced SHAB, it is necessary to formulate clear guidelines, set up educational workshops and implement intervention programs for both ED and SHAB in sport.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Perceived alcohol use among friends and alcohol consumption among college athletes.

Intercollegiate athletes have been identified as an at-risk group for heavy alcohol consumption (e.g., T. F. Nelson & H. Wechsler, 2001). The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between descriptive drinking norms among one's closest friends and personal alcohol consumption among athletes. Specifically, the authors sought to determine whether perceptions of alcohol consumption among one's closest friend who was an athlete (athlete norms) demonstrated a stronger relationship with personal alcohol use than normative perceptions among one's closest friend who was not an athlete (nonathlete norms). Data were collected on 165 athletes competing at the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I level. Results indicated that the athlete norms demonstrated a stronger main effect with personal alcohol use than the nonathlete norms, although both norms demonstrated strong effects. However, an interaction effect indicated that the athlete norms demonstrated a stronger relationship with personal consumption among men, whereas the nonathlete norms demonstrated a stronger relationship among women. Implications for alcohol prevention programs among college athletes are discussed.

Adult↗