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PubMed1987

Somatization in the community.

We examined the prevalence of somatization disorder symptoms elicited with the Diagnostic Interview Schedule in 3132 community respondents interviewed in Los Angeles by the Epidemiologic Catchment Area program. The variables age, gender, ethnic background, and the presence of a psychiatric diagnosis significantly influenced the number of somatization symptoms reported. An introductory review on conceptual and nosological aspects of somatization phenomena led to the formulation of a less-restrictive operational definition of the somatizer. We found that 4.4% of the respondents met criteria for this abridged cutoff score of somatization, whereas only 0.03% of the respondents met criteria for the full DSM-III somatization disorder diagnosis. This abridged cutoff score was associated with sociodemographic factors and psychiatric diagnosis in the direction predicted.

Acculturation↗
PubMed1996

Contributions to somatic and germline lineages of chicken blastodermal cells maintained in culture.

Chicken blastodermal cells were cultured for 48 hr as explanted intact embryos, as dispersed cells in a monolayer, or with a confluent layer of mouse fibroblasts. The cells were then dispersed and injected into stage X (E-G&K) recipient embryos that were exposed to 600 rads of irradiation from a 60Co source. Regardless of the conditions in which the cells were cultured, chimeras with contributions to both somatic tissues and the germline were observed. When blastodermal cells were co-cultured with mouse embryonic fibroblasts, significantly more somatic chimeras were observed and the proportion of feather follicles derived from donor cells was increased relative to that observed following the injection of cells derived from explanted embryos or monolayer cultures. Culture of blastodermal cells in any of the systems, however, yielded fewer chimeras that exhibited reduced contributions to somatic tissues in comparison to the frequency and extent of somatic chimerism observed following injection of freshly prepared cells. Contributions to the germline were observed at an equal frequency regardless of the conditions of culture, but were significantly reduced in comparison to the frequency and rate of germline transmission following injection of cells obtained directly from stage X (E-G&K) embryos. These data demonstrate that some cells retain the ability to contribute to germline and somatic tissues after 48 hr in culture and that the ability to contribute to the somatic and germline lineages is not retained equally.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Somatic frameshift alterations in mononucleotide repeat-containing genes in different tumor types from an HNPCC family with germline MSH2 mutation.

Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is caused by a germline mutation in one of several DNA repair genes, which in the tumors is reflected as microsatellite instability (MSI). MSI+ tumors have been found to carry somatic frameshift mutations in mononucleotide repeats within the coding regions of several genes involved in growth control, apoptosis, and DNA repair, e.g., TGFBRII, BAX, IGFIIR, TCF4, MSH3, and MSH6. We have studied the occurrence of somatic frameshift alterations in these mononucleotide repeat-containing genes in 24 tumors (15 colorectal cancers, 1 colon adenoma, 4 endometrial cancers, 1 ovarian cancer, 1 gastric cancer, 1 urothelial cancer, and 1 duodenal cancer) from 14 individuals in an HNPCC family with germline hMSH2 mutation. Such somatic frameshift mutations occurred at a variable frequency; the long mononucleotide repeats that characterize intronic MSI markers were mutated in the majority of tumors, 13 of the tumors displayed alterations in the (A)(10) tract of TGFBII, eight tumors (all of gastrointestinal origin) had alterations in the (A)(9) repeat of TCF4, and one to five tumors had somatic frameshift alterations in the shorter mononucleotide repeats of IGFIIR, BAX, MSH3, and MSH6. Thus, longer mononucleotide repeats were more frequently affected by somatic frameshift mutations. The pattern of alterations varied between the tumors from different family members as well as between different tumors from the same individual. To what extent this variable pattern depends on the widespread mismatch repair deficiency induced by the underlying MSH2 mutation, or represents alternative ways whereby the tumors can achieve a tumorigenic phenotype, is unknown. We suggest, however, that the accumulation of somatic frameshifts, rather than the specific loci in which these occur, drives the development of the tumorigenic phenotype in HNPCC.

Aged↗
PubMed1982

Second somatic sensory area in the cerebral cortex of cats: somatotopic organization and cytoarchitecture.

The cortex of the anterior ectosylvian gyrus and adjoining ectosylvian and suprasylvian sulci was explored with tungsten microelectrodes to determine the distribution of responses to light cutaneous stimulation in barbiturate-anesthetized cats. Recordings were spaced between 125 and 250 micrometers and, in several cases, nearly all of the somatic areas in this cortex were explored in the same brain. Four somatic sensory areas were identified on the basis of responses properties, sequences of receptive fields, and cytoarchitecture. The largest area, which occupied the rostral and medial two-thirds to three-fourths of the exposed, relatively flat portion of the anterior ectosylvian gyrus, was called the second somatic sensory area (SII). Receptive fields in SII were primarily from the contralateral side of the body; they were well defined and somatotopically organized into an erect representation of the body. The top of the head was located next to a similar representation of the periphery in a portion of the first somatic sensory area (SI). Individual distal digits and toes occupied discrete components of the SII map. Another representation for the distal forelimb and hindlimb was noted medially along the lateral bank of the anterior suprasylvian sulcus. Receptive fields and response properties in this region were equivalent to those seen in SII proper. However, only a crude anteroposterior, fore- to hindlimb topographical organization was noted, but with more distal parts of the limbs generally located closer to the fundus of the sulcus in this medial representation. As the cytoarchitecture in this medial region was similar to the rest of SII it was considered a medial subdivision of SII. A third, topographically organized zone was located lateral to SII largely within the upper bank of the anterior ectosylvian sulcus and adjoining lateral crest of the anterior ectosylvian gyrus. Large, stockinglike, contralateral receptive fields were common; ipsilateral components to the receptive fields were present. Some individual digit receptive fields were located in the rostral part of the forelimb zone within the anterior ectosylvian sulcus. This lateral somatic area is probably equivalent to a fourth somatic sensory area (SIV) recently identified by Clemo and Stein ('82). Posterior to the hindlimb zones of SII and medial to SIV was another region that responded to cutaneous plus auditory stimulation. There was no detectable topography in this area; nearly all of the receptive fields were large, frequently bilateral, and often involved the whole body or all four extremities. This area's cytoarchitecture was comparable to previous descriptions of the suprasylvian fringe (Rose, '49). The location and physiology of these four areas were discussed in reference to previous controversies regarding the topography of the body representation in SII and the location of an acallosal zone in this region of cortex.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Pluripotency of reprogrammed somatic genomes in embryonic stem hybrid cells.

Somatic nuclei can be epigenetically reprogrammed by factors present in undifferentiated embryonic stem (ES) cells. The acquisition of pluripotency by somatic genomes could render such cells a viable source of personalized cell type(s) for therapeutic application, avoiding the need for controversial therapeutic cloning. To investigate this possibility, we first determined the origin of transcripts in teratomas generated from mouse (ES x somatic cell) hybrid clones. Transcription of markers from the somatic genome demonstrated efficient in vivo differentiation down independent lineages. The induction of dopaminergic neurons by coculture with stromal PA6 feeder cells also demonstrated efficient capacity to differentiate in vitro. Hybrid clone-derived neurons expressed appropriate markers, and transcription of Pitx3 from the somatic genome was confirmed. When transplanted into mouse brains, the dopaminergic neurons were successfully integrated and expressed tyrosine hydroxylase. Thus, it should be possible to produce personalized ES-like cells with the reprogrammed somatic genomes.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Diffuse large cell lymphomas are derived from mature B cells carrying V region genes with a high load of somatic mutation and evidence of selection for antibody expression.

In the Revised European American Lymphoma (REAL) classification, several subtypes of high-grade lymphomas were combined in the entity diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLL). In the present study, a total of 19 cases of DLL (10 cases of centroblastic lymphoma, 5 cases of mediastinal B cell lymphoma, 2 cases of immunoblastic lymphoma, 1 case of T cell-rich B lymphoma and one case of large cell anaplastic lymphoma) were analyzed for somatically mutated immunoglobulin V region genes. Somatic mutations are acquired in the course of the germinal center (GC) reaction and are thus found in GC B cells and their descendants, i.e. memory B cells. The V gene sequences revealed that the tumor cells of all five subtypes of DLL harbored mutated V region genes and are thus derived from antigen-experienced (post) GC B cells. This indicates that from the point of view of the stage of development of the tumor precursor, the combination of those five subtypes to one entity, i.e. DLL, seems reasonable. In some cases, an unusually high frequency of somatic mutations was detected. This may indicate that DLL are derived from GC B cells, which, due to transforming events, stayed in the GC for prolonged periods of time, thereby accumulating a high load of somatic mutation. An analysis of the mutation pattern suggests that the tumor clone or its precursor were selected for antibody expression while acquiring somatic mutations. The latter observation discriminates DLL from classical Hodgkin's disease, where we recently also observed a high load of somatic mutation within rearranged V region genes, but a frequent occurrence of crippling mutations.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Ultrastructural plasticity of the dentate gyrus granule cells following recurrent limbic seizures: I. Increase in somatic spines.

Various paradigms have been used to assess the capacity of the adult brain to undergo activity-dependent morphological plasticity. In this report we have employed recurrent limbic seizures as a means of studying the effects of this form of enhanced neuronal activity on cellular morphology and, in particular, on the incidence of somatic spines on the dentate gyrus granule cells. Seizure activity was induced by the placement of focal, unilateral electrolytic lesions in the dentate gyrus hilus of adult rats. At various intervals postlesion, rats with behaviorally verified seizures were sacrificed, and the hippocampi contralateral to the lesions were removed and prepared for electron microscopy. Quantitative analysis showed that as early as 5 hours postlesion there was a dramatic increase in the density and morphological complexity of spines on the perikarya of the granule cells in rats that received seizure-producing hilus lesions when compared to granule cells from control rats. Many of the somatic spines received asymmetric synapses. The increase in somatic spines was dependent on seizure activity and persisted for at least 1 month following a single recurrent seizure episode. CA1 pyramidal neurons, which exhibit changes in gene expression in response to hilus lesion-induced seizures but do not normally possess somatic spines, did not exhibit an activity-dependent elaboration of somatic spines. Thus, the seizure-induced elaboration of somatic spines represents an amplification of an existing feature of the granule cells and not an effect occurring throughout hippocampus. These data provide evidence for very rapid and long-lasting structural plasticity in response to brief episodes of seizure activity in the adult brain.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Differential binding of oocyte-type and somatic-type 5S rRNA to TFIIIA and ribosomal protein L5 in Xenopus oocytes: specialization for storage versus mobilization.

We studied the pathway of 5S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) during oogenesis in Xenopus from its storage in the cytoplasm to incorporation into ribosomes in the nucleus. Ribonucleoprotein particle (RNP) assembly assays reveal striking differences in the behavior of oocyte-type and somatic-type 5S rRNA after microinjection into stage II, III, or IV oocytes or into the cytoplasm of stage V-VI oocytes. Microinjected oocyte-type 5S rRNA predominantly interacts with the 5S rRNA gene-specific transcription factor IIIA (TFIIIA) to form storage 7S RNPs. In contrast, microinjected somatic-type 5S rRNA predominantly interacts with ribosomal protein L5 to form 5S RNPs, which are precursors to ribosome assembly. In addition, a greater amount of somatic-type 5S rRNA accumulates in the nucleus and is assembled into 60S ribosomal subunits. Thus, a slight difference in nucleotide sequence results in differential binding of 5S rRNA to TFIIIA and L5, specializing oocyte-type for storage in the oocyte cytoplasm and somatic-type for rapid mobilization and ribosome assembly. When oocyte-type and somatic-type 5S rRNA molecules were microinjected into the nucleus of stage V-VI oocytes in excess of other ribosomal components, the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of both types of RNA was similar, but the distinctive protein associations were maintained. In contrast, the behavior of oocyte-type and somatic-type 5S rRNA gradually synthesized in situ from microinjected cloned genes was similar, suggesting that nascent RNA is rapidly and directly recruited into ribosomes, thus bypassing an excursion into the cytoplasm prior to ribosome assembly.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Somatic versus germline mutation processes at minisatellite CEB1 (D2S90) in humans and transgenic mice.

The most variable human minisatellites show extreme germline instability dominated by complex intra-allelic rearrangements plus a lower frequency of inter-allelic transfers of repeat units. In contrast, little is known about somatic instability at such loci. We have therefore used single-molecule PCR to analyze mutation at minisatellite CEB1 (D2S90) in human blood DNA. Somatic mutants were rare and involved only relatively simple intra-allelic events, with no bias toward expansions, in sharp contrast to the complex gain-biased rearrangements seen in sperm. Somatic and germline mutation processes were further analyzed in mice transgenic for a cosmid insert containing CEB1. Mutant molecules in transgenic sperm and blood were detected but only at the low frequencies seen in human blood and arose mainly by simple duplications and deletions as seen for somatic mutations in human. These data suggest distinct pathways for germline and somatic CEB1 mutations with germline instability involving recombination-based repair of meiotic double-strand breaks and somatic mutation arising by replication slippage or mitotic recombination. The problem of transferring germline-specific features of minisatellite instability from human to mouse suggests, with other recent observations, that long-range chromatin conformation may be required for the recombination-based mode of germline instability at human minisatellites.

Alleles↗
PubMed1996

The mechanism of somatic hypermutation studied with transgenic and transfected target genes.

Somatic hypermutation of Ig genes is beginning to be understood in molecular terms. Ig transgenes have served as model test genes and been shown to mutate, just as endogenous genes, with a peak of mutation over the VJ region and a sparing of the C region. The levels of somatic mutation appear to be related to the expression of the transgenes. DNA hypermethylation of modified Ig transgenes interferes with both expression and somatic hypermutation. Test substrates consisting of bacterial lacZ alpha or supFtRNA inserted within x transgenes were shown to be rescuable as expressible bacterial plasmids, but did not seem to be targeted. A synthetic sequence consisting of alternating restriction enzyme sites, that cannot be subject to methylation, was found to be a reliable transgenic substrate for easy assay of somatic mutation. The generation of a transgenic mouse with a x transgene in which the transcriptional promoter has been duplicated upstream of the C region has given new clues to the mutation mechanism. In this transgene, transcripts initiate from both the C region and the V region promoters, and both regions, but not the sequences between them, are hypermutated. These results suggest that somatic hypermutation is linked to the initiation of transcription. A model is proposed in which somatic mutation is dependent on transcription coupled DNA repair.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Nonmetastatic tumor cells acquire metastatic properties following somatic hybridization with normal cells.

Somatic cell hybridization between nonmetastatic tumor cells and normal cells of the lymphoreticular system results in hybrid cells manifesting metastatic properties of defined target organ specificity. Thus, fusion of the nonmetastatic BALB/c originated NSI plasmacytoma with C57BL B lymphocytes resulted in hybridomas, each of which were metastatic. Of 10 hybridomas, 7 generated metastases in the spleen and liver, whereas 3 generated liver metastases. The generation of liver metastases by hybridomas which homed to both spleen and liver, but not by those which homed to the liver only, was controlled by the spleen. The acquisition of metastatic properties via somatic cell fusion seems to represent a general principle, in which the normal partner determines the target organ specificity for the metastatic growth. Thus, fusion of SP2/O myeloma cells with syngeneic B lymphocytes also resulted in a hybrid cell metastasizing to the spleen and liver, yet a somatic hybrid between NSI and a macrophage or dendritic-like cell metastasized to the lung. Cell surface molecules encoded by the genome of the normal partner was demonstrated to control the target organ specificity: antibodies against MHC-encoded antigens of the normal B cell partner prevented the generation of metastases by hybridomas metastasizing to the spleen and liver, but not by those metastasizing to the liver only. This is in accordance with the function of MHC molecules on lymphocytes in controlling their homing to lymphoid organs. Hybridomas of T cell lymphomas also manifested metastatic properties. Analysis of the cell surface Thy-1 antigens of a hybridoma (DCH10), produced via somatic fusion between BW5145 lymphoma and a putative macrophage cell indicated that cells of liver metastases (DCH10-Li) generated by the hybrid cells might have undergone further somatic cell fusion in vivo with host (T?) cells. These cells have acquired new metastatic properties, generating metastases in spleen, liver and kidneys. In fact, even the inoculation of the parental BW lymphoma cells resulted in a case of liver metastasis (BW-Li). Such BW-Li cells, upon reinoculation, also generated metastases in the spleen, liver and kidneys. Analysis of the Thyl phenotype indicated that BW-Li cells may also have undergone somatic cell fusion in vivo with host (T?) cells, resulting in the acquisition of metastatic properties. The pattern of cell-cell interactions (adhesion, infiltration) with liver cell monolayers of BW-Li cells and of DCH10-Li (T-cell lymphomas) was identical, and differed from cells of liver metastases of the myeloma-B cell hybridomas which might be based on responses to liver growth signals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Transposable DNA elements and life history traits. I. Transposition of P DNA elements in somatic cells reduces the lifespan of Drosophila melanogaster.

As an initial study of the influence of transposable DNA elements on life history traits, and as a model system for estimating the impact of somatic genetic damage on longevity, the effect of P DNA element movement in somatic cells on adult lifespan was measured in Drosophila melanogaster males. Lifespan was significantly reduced in males that contained the somatically active P[ry+ delta 2-3](99B) element and 17, 4, 3, but not just a single P element. Furthermore, there appears to be a direct correlation between the number of transposing P elements and the amount of lifespan reduction. This reduction in lifespan observed in males with somatically active P elements is probably due to genetic damage in embryos, larvae and pupae from P-element excisions and insertions, leading to changes in gene structure and regulation, chromosome breakage, and subsequent cell death in adults. This hypothesis is supported in this study by a significant increase in recessive sex-linked lethal mutations in the same males that had reduced lifespans and by the previous observation of chromosome breakage in somatic cells of similar males. The evolutionary implications of these results are discussed, including the possible influence of somatic DNA transpositions on fitness and other life history traits.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

The contribution of mammary infections by coagulase-negative staphylococci to the herd bulk milk somatic cell count.

Quarter foremilk samples were taken at 2-3 weekly intervals for several years in an experimental herd comprising about 45 cows. The samples were submitted to bacteriological analysis and somatic cell counting. The most prevalent quarter infections from 1982 to 1988 were by coagulase-negative staphylococci (15-20% of all the quarters sampled). Most of these (75.6%) persisted until drying-off. Dry cow therapy eliminated 86.5% of these infections. Comparison of udder quarters within cows, involving 775 samples from pairs of non-infected quarters and quarters infected by coagulase-negative staphylococci, yielded geometric means of somatic cell counts of 210,000 and 420,000 cells/ml, respectively. The correlation (r = 0.87) between the herd bulk milk somatic cell count (SCC) and its estimation from the quarter milk somatic cell count performed on the same day allowed us to evaluate the contribution of the different categories of quarters, according to their infection status, to the herd bulk milk SCC. Quarters infected by a major pathogen (8.5% of samples) gave rise to 46.6% of the total number of cells, while quarters infected by coagulase-negative staphylococci (17.8% of samples) gave rise to 18.1%. Although coagulase-negative staphylococci represented only a secondary source of somatic cells as compared to major pathogens, they were not a negligible source considering the threshold of 300,000 somatic cells advocated for herd milk of good quality.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Somatic complaints in anxious children.

Although stomachaches and headaches are considered characteristic of children with anxiety disorders, there is converging evidence that a broader range of somatic symptoms may be associated with children's expressions of anxiety. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of somatic complaints in anxious children. The results indicated that children with anxiety disorders endorsed the presence of many different somatic complaints, and that contrary to clinical intuition, stomaches and headaches were not among the most commonly reported symptoms. In addition, the anxious children endorsed significantly more somatic complaints when compared to normal controls. Furthermore, the symptom pattern reported by anxious children indicated the presence of both the somatic and cognitive components usually associated with panic attacks, although none of the children met diagnostic criteria for panic disorder. The results are discussed in terms of the contribution of somatic symptoms to the understanding of anxiety disorders in children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Accumulation of somatic mutation in mitochondrial DNA extracted from peripheral blood cells in diabetic patients.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: A point mutation of mitochondrial DNA at nucleotide number 3243 A to G is responsible for both the major genetic aetiologies of the MELAS (mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes) and mitochondrial diabetes. Otherwise, this mutation is also reported to occur as an acquired somatic mutation, possibly due to oxidative stress. Since diabetes can cause severe oxidative stress, we hypothesize that the accumulation of the somatic 3243 A to G mutation in mitochondrial DNA can be accelerated by diabetes. METHODS: DNA was extracted from blood samples of 290 non-diabetic healthy subjects (age 20-60) including 98 newborn infants and from 383 patients with Type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus (age 18-80). The extent of somatic 3243 A to G mutation to total mitochondrial DNA was detected by real-time PCR using the TaqMan Probe. RESULTS: Whereas the level of the 3243 A to G mutation was negligible in the newborn group, it was increased in healthy subjects who were 20 to 29 and 41 to 60 years of age, suggesting that this mutation was somatic. In the diabetic patients the mutation rate increased along with age and the duration of diabetes. In the middle-aged group (age 41-60), the 3243 A to G mutation accumulates fourfold higher in the diabetic patients than the healthy subjects. Moreover, multiple regression analysis showed that the most critical factor associated with this mutation in diabetic patients was the duration of diabetes. CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION: Diabetes accelerates the accumulation of the somatic 3243 A to G mutation in mitochondrial DNA, which can accelerate the ageing process. This somatic mutation could possibly be a new marker for estimating the duration of diabetes.

Adenine↗
PubMed2004

Detection of somatization and depression in primary care in Saudi Arabia.

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown a high worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in primary care. Many patients present with unexplained physical symptoms rather than psychological complaints, resulting in an excess number of costly clinical investigations. This study investigates the ability of primary care physicians to correctly detect and diagnose somatization and depression in Saudi Arabian patients. METHODS: In all 431 primary care patients in Riyadh Saudi Arabia were screened for somatization and depression using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ). Primary care physicians independently assessed these same patients while blinded to the results of the PHQ. Agreement between physician observations and the screening instrument was examined. RESULTS: Using the PHQ as the standard of comparison for measuring the detection rates of Saudi physicians, the agreement between and the PHQ and physician assessments was kappa = 0.40 for depression (0.45 females, 0.31 males) and kappa = 0.27 for somatization (0.36 females, 0.12 males). Physicians assessed higher rates of somatization than indicated by the screening instrument and demonstrated poor diagnostic agreement on somatization and depression, particularly for male patients. CONCLUSIONS: Saudi primary care physicians have awareness of psychiatric disorders, but their diagnostic skills are poor for somatization and depression. Psychiatric training should be supported in the continuing education of primary care physicians and patients should be encouraged to report psychological complaints to family physicians. A simple screening instrument for identifying mental disorders in developing countries is a valuable tool for assessment in primary care.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Vegetative propagation of Quercus suber L. by somatic embryogenesis. II. Plant regeneration from selected cork oak trees.

The regeneration of somatic seedlings from selected 100-year-old cork oak trees is reported. The induction of somatic embryogenesis from leaves of epicormic shoots was significantly affected by genotype, harvesting time and their interaction. Leaves from all five selected trees produced somatic embryos when the segments of branches used as sources of epicormic shoots were collected in May. Genotype, but not the level of photosynthetically active radiation, affected the proliferation of the embryogenic lines and the number of detachable embryos that could be obtained from them. Genotype also affected several steps leading to conversion of somatic embryos, from germination to complete acclimatisation of somatic seedlings. Almost 40% of the somatic embryos from all lines germinated, showing coordinated root and shoot growth. Although the mean percentage of recovery for the whole process was low, plants could be regenerated from four of the five trees tested.

Acclimatization↗
PubMed2003

Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from seeds of wild Dicentra spectabilis (L.) LEM.

Regeneration via somatic embryogenesis from callus was studied in Dicentra spectabilis. To obtain somatic embryogenic callus, we cultured D. spectabilis seeds on MS basal media supplemented with various concentrations of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). The highest percentage of embryogenic callus formation was observed on media containing 1.0 mg/l 2,4-D under dark conditions. Somatic embryogenesis was studied by transferring the callus onto MS basal medium containing different concentrations (0.0, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/l) of KIN (kinetin) and/or BAP. Somatic embryogenesis on MS basal media with 1.0 mg/l of KIN was excellent under light conditions. Somatic embryos were rooted by transferring them to half-strength MS basal media containing 2 g/l Phytagel. About 64.2% of the somatic embryos converted to rooted plantlets, 4% showed secondary embryogenesis and 31.8% did not develop and died. Rooted plantlets showed a 46% survival rate when acclimatized ex vitro.

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid↗