Impairment of memory for sequences in conduction aphasia.
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Adult↗
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Intravenous diazepam in humans: effects on acquisition and performance of response chains.
A technique based upon an individual-subject design was used to investigate the effects of intravenous diazepam on the acquisition and performance of response chains in humans. In each of two conditions subjects were required to emit a different sequence of ten responses in a predetermined order on three levers. The conditions alternated within each session under a multiple schedule. In the performance condition the sequence of responses was the same each session. The second condition was a repeated-acquisition task. In this condition subjects were required to learn a different sequence of responses each session. Diazepam produced dose-dependent decreases in the overall rate of responding in each subject under both conditions. In two of the three subjects tested, errors were increased in the learning condition at doses lower than those required to disrupt accuracy in the performance condition. In one subject, accuracy in both the learning and performance conditions was equisensitive to the disruptive effects of diazepam. These data are consistent with the effects of the benzodiazepines in analogous animal procedures. Furthermore, the data suggest that the behavioral effects of intravenous diazepam may exhibit marked variations across subjects at clinically relevant doses (5-10 mg).
Adult↗
Memory for frequency in rats: role of the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex.
On a radial arm maze rats were tested for frequency memory of specific spatial locations, a task that presumably involves the coding of temporal information. On any trial during the study phase rats were allowed to visit three different spatial locations only once and one spatial location twice. During the test phase the rats were given a choice between a spatial location that had been visited once and spatial location that had been visited twice. The rats were reinforced for selecting the twice-visited spatial location. The number of spatial locations between a repetition (lag) was varied from one to three. After extensive training rats displayed memory for frequency only for a lag of three spatial locations, i.e., they displayed a repetition lag effect. Animals then received control, medial prefrontal cortex, or hippocampal lesions. Upon subsequent retests control rats continued to display frequency memory, but animals with medial prefrontal cortex or hippocampal lesions displayed a marked impairment. These data support the idea that both the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex code temporal order information.
Animals↗
Visual memory skills in Japanese and Caucasians.
Two visual memory tasks were administered to 80 subjects, 48 Japanese and 32 Caucasian, 49 female and 31 male. Japanese subjects were divided into 2 groups, those brought up in Japan with knowledge of kanji and Americans of Japanese ancestry with no kanji experience. The Caucasian subjects were subdivided into two groups, those who had learned kanji as adults, and others without knowledge of kanji. The purpose of the experiment was to examine the possible influence of kanji on the finding that Japanese children and adults score higher than their Caucasian peers in tests of visual ability. A knowledge of kanji did not appear to influence the scoring pattern.
Adult↗
Seriation, conservation, and theory of mind abilities in individuals with autism, individuals with mental retardation, and normally developing children.
Seriation, conservation, and theory of mind abilities were examined in individuals with autism (N = 16), mental retardation (N = 16), and in normally developing children (N = 16). Seriation tasks included seriation of tubes, blocks, and flat squares. Conservation tasks included conservation of area, number, substance, quantity, and weight. Theory of mind tasks involved predicting false belief and understanding value and fact beliefs. Participants with autism performed better than participants with mental retardation on seriation, while no differences emerged between these groups on conservation and false belief. Individuals with autism performed less well than individuals with mental retardation on the value and fact belief tasks; however, when verbal ability was held as a covariant, the difference was no longer significant. Normally developing children performed better than the other two groups on all tasks. These results suggest that autism does not involve a specific impairment in theory of mind and that theory of mind deficits are not unique to autism.
Adolescent↗
Coding of spatial and temporal information in episodic memory.
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Auditory Perception↗
Learning and memory for hierarchical relationships in the monkey: effects of aging.
Young and aged rhesus monkeys were tested on 2 versions of a transitive inference task measuring learning and memory for hierarchical relationships. Animals initially acquired 4 object discrimination problems arranged such that the relationship between the stimuli followed the hierarchy A > B > C > D > E. The second version of the task was similar but involved a series of 7 objects. Learning and memory for the hierarchical relationships were evaluated during probe trials in which novel pairs of nonadjacent items (e.g., B and D) were presented for a response. Standard task accuracy measures failed to distinguish young and aged subjects at any point in training. In contrast, response latency effects that are indicative of relational information processing in young monkeys were entirely absent in aged subjects. The findings highlight the value of a relational memory framework for establishing a detailed neuropsychological account of cognitive aging in the monkey.
Aging↗
Preliminary analysis of effects of "normal" aging on different memory processes and abilities.
Visual recognition-memory span, name-face association, and verbal memory with selective reminding were tested in two groups of 24 normal healthy volunteers (above and below age 50 yr.). The preliminary study suggests differential effects of aging on specific memory components and warrants careful exploration.
Adolescent↗
The effects of alcohol on learning as a function of drinking habits.
Thirty-six subjects were categorized as light social drinkers (LSD) and 36 as heavy social drinkers (HSD) on the basis of both biological criteria, gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) and the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and by self-reports of drinking habits. This study examined the effects of alcohol (0.7 ml/kg) and of noise (75 dB(A] on learning and performance, in choice RT and in immediate memory tasks. Each subject was tested in two consecutive sessions (the time factor) under one of the following experimental conditions: (a) silence + placebo; (b) silence + alcohol; (c) noise + placebo; and (d) noise + alcohol. On immediate memory, there was a strong effect of time which interacted with 'drinker' category, suggesting that HSD subjects learn less rapidly than LSD. Time interacted also with state (sober or intoxicated), showing that learning might be impaired even by a moderate dose of alcohol. On the reaction time task no main effects were found but the time X drinker category interaction was significant; in session 1 LSD's RT were shorter than those of HSD. It is suggested that regular heavy drinking might affect the learning abilities of those who are not yet labelled as alcoholics.
Adult↗
Effects of cocaine and alcohol, alone and in combination, on human learning and performance.
The acute effects of cocaine hydrochloride (4 to 96 mg/70 kg) and alcohol (0 to 1.0 g/kg), administered alone and in combination, were assessed in two experiments with human volunteers responding under a multiple schedule of repeated acquisition and performance of response chains. Subjects were intermittent users of cocaine and regular drinkers who were not cocaine or alcohol dependent. Alcohol was mixed with orange juice and ingested in six drinks within 30 min; cocaine was administered intranasally 45 min after completion of drinking. In each component of the multiple schedule, subjects completed response sequences using three keys of a numeric keypad. In the acquisition component, a new sequence was learned each session. In the performance component, the response sequence always remained the same. Results were consistent in both experiments, despite variations in the order in which the drugs were tested alone and in combination. Alcohol administered alone increased overall percentage of errors and decreased rates of responding in the acquisition component, whereas responding in the performance component generally was unaffected. Cocaine administered alone decreased rates of responding but did not affect accuracy of responding in the acquisition component, and enhanced accuracy of responding without affecting rates of responding in the performance component. The combined doses of cocaine and alcohol attenuated the effects observed with alcohol and cocaine alone. These results suggest that, under the conditions investigated in this study, (a) alcohol produces greater behavioral disruption than cocaine or cocaine-alcohol combinations, (b) cocaine and alcohol each attenuate effects of the other, and (c) such attenuation is most pronounced for cocaine attenuating the disruptive effects of alcohol.
Adult↗
Anarthria impairs subvocal counting.
We studied subvocal counting in two pure anarthric patients. Analysis showed that they performed definitively worse than normal subjects free to articulate subvocally and their scores were in the lower bounds of the performances of subjects suppressing articulation. These results suggest that subvocal counting is impaired after anarthria.
Adult↗
Blocking of stimuli and the free recall and subjective organization of EMR adolescents.
Number of unrelated stimulus items presented consistently and spatially grouped (1, 3, or 5) was studied in a multitrial free recall experiment with EMR adolescents. This blocking was effective in (a) improving recall from recently presented items, (b) increasing subjective organization, and (c) leading to the formation of stable clusterable output groups. Some evidence suggested that overall recall also increased as a result of the consistent and simultaneous presentation. Discussion of the results emphasized that for a retarded population the relationship between organization and recall may not be strong unless intensive strategy training is employed.
Adolescent↗
Neurophysiological aspects and learning processes in schizophrenic patients.
Two groups of schizophrenic patients (acute and chronic subjects) were observed in order to study possible differences in neuropsychological performances and their relationship with symptomatology. 16 acute and 16 chronic patients, aged 18 to 35 years were tested with a battery of neuropsychological tests (Word Association Test, Serial Verbal Learning, Weigl's test, Simple Reaction Times, Choice Continuous Reaction Time). Clinical profiles were evaluated by means of MMPI and WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale). Findings concerning cognitive processes show no significant differences between the two groups. Results suggest a correlation between clinical profiles and performances in acute patients, whereas in chronic subjects this correlation seems markedly reduced. Finally, chronicity (i.e. the length of illness) does not seem so be an important factor in determining consistent defects in neuropsychological performances.
Acute Disease↗
Long-term recall of event sequences in infancy.
The first experiment shows that 11-month-olds can encode novel causal events from a brief period of observational learning, and recall much of the information after 24 h. The second experiment, using both a longitudinal and a cross-sectional design, shows recall of the same events after a delay of 3 months. The infants remembered more individual actions than whole sequences, but reproduced many of the events in their entirety (and always in correct order) after the long delay. Although they also reproduced arbitrarily ordered events immediately after being shown them at 11 months, they began to forget them after 24 h and showed essentially no recall for this type of event after 3 months. The experiments not only indicate long-lasting memory for briefly experienced events in infancy, they also suggest that the factors that organize recall at this young age are similar to those found in older children and adults.
Association Learning↗
Hypernatremic thirst deficiency and memory disorders following hypothalamic lesions.
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Adult↗
Digit and shape memory function in soroban learners: are soroban learners superior in general?
The memory function of 15 soroban learners and 13 novices was examined on visual memory tasks. Analysis showed soroban learners were superior in performance of digit recall but not of shape recall. This result seems to reflect the tendency for soroban groups to be better in processing some kinds of spatial than categorical properties. Based upon these results, effects of soroban learning on brain function were discussed.
Attention↗
Cognitive sequence knowledge: what is learned?
In 4 experiments, participants performed running-arithmetic tasks. These tasks involved a sequential ordering of individual operations and a structure of subgoals that defined how calculations fit together in purpose. Consistent transitions between adjacent steps facilitated performance only when subgoal structures were relatively simple. When subgoal structures were more complex, consistent mapping of operations to serial locations produced a slight benefit. Consistency of subgoal structure produced a substantial benefit in both speed and accuracy, and some knowledge of subgoal structure integrated with knowledge of the sequence of operations. Apparently, a task's subgoal structure imposes demands that either facilitate or obscure benefits of sequence consistencies. The benefits are attributed to increased efficiency in using working memory.
Adult↗
Human neurologic function and the aging process.
Sixty-one normal men whose ages ranged from 20 to 80 years were evaluated on two occasions by means of a comprehensive series of 128 instrumented tests of neurologic function. The tests measured cognition, vision, strength, steadiness, reactions, speed, coordination, fatigue, gait, station, sensations, and tasks of daily living. The reliability of each test measured was determined, and any measure found unreliable (r less than or equal to 0.41) was not further analyzed. Significant age-related linear decreases were found for almost all neurologic functions. The declines over the age span varied from less than 10 percent to more than 90 percent for different functions. For the upper extremities, the largest declines (greater than 50 percent) were in hand-force steadiness, speed of hand-arm movements, and vibration sense; for the lower extremities, the largest declines were in one-legged balance with eyes closed and in vibration sense. For 13 of 14 tests in which significant dominant body-side effects were found, larger re-testing 7-10 days later, the subjects improved their scores by more than 5 percent on only 17 tests, 9 of which concerned the activities of daily living. No significant differential learning effects were found across age groups. The results point to the importance of developing a data bank on age-based neurologic function so that therapeutic effects can be evaluated in terms of age- and sex-matched normal functioning.
Adult↗