THE DISCLOSURE OF SELF IN THE UNITED STATES AND GERMANY.
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The association of selected "masculine" sex-role variables with length of relationship in gay male couples.
This study investigates the association of selected masculine sex-role characteristics with the fact that a gay male relationship is ongoing or the partners have separated. Sixty couples (30 ongoing, 30 recently separated) from a large urban area responded to a self-report battery that included measures of sex-role identification and questions on demographic data, self-disclosure to partner, degrees of cooperation, and sexual plurality. The subjects had been born in the United States, were Caucasian, and ranged in age from 21-37. To a statistically significant degree, separated respondents scored lower on cooperation than ongoing subjects and were more likely to be androgynous. No difference between the groups emerged on the variables of self-disclosure or the number of sexual experiences outside the primary relationship.
Adult↗
The assessment of stigma: implications for theory and intervention.
Self-disclosure data from marijuana smokers are considered. Attention is given to disclosure patterns in relation to four types of reference individuals and to feelings about disclosure. Users were most likely to disclose and to feel comfortable about disclosing to high intimate and nonauthority reference individuals. They were less likely to disclose and to feel comfortable about disclosing (1) to low intimate and nonauthority reference individuals, and (2) to authority-reference individuals--irrespective of their intimacy with them. The implications of a self-disclosure-reference-individual strategy for the study of stigma and for intervention purposes are discussed.
Adult↗
Understanding hypertensives' behaviour. II: Perceived social approval and blood pressure reactivity.
The influence of perceived social approval on blood pressure reactivity was investigated in two stages. Initially, a new procedure was devised to measure the reaction to initial stimuli in subjects where base rate determination had not occurred. Minimal public self disclosure was shown to have a greater pressor effect for borderline hypertensives than normotensives. The two groups remained clearly distinguishable after exercise. Perceived level of social approval on physiological response in two groups of reactive borderline hypertensives was then investigated in the laboratory. Blood pressure level rose during an arithmetic task for all subjects. A large increase in blood pressure variability was specific to the self disclosure task and only for those who perceived low social approval. The ramifications are discussed.
Adolescent↗
The sharing of self in geriatric clinical practice: case report and analysis.
We relate a case history that involved the therapeutic sharing of self with an elderly patient. The potential usefulness of this kind of intervention is discussed in light of the literature on self-disclosure and the use of self in clinical practice. We discuss how these concepts might relate to other well-described phenomena in geriatric nursing, including reminiscence, life review, loneliness, and storytelling. Recommendations for use in clinical practice and for qualitative studies are given.
Aged↗
Secondary traumatization among wives of Israeli POWs: the role of POWs' distress.
BACKGROUND: The aim of the study is to examine secondary traumatization of wives of former prisoners of war (POWs) as manifested in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, additional psychiatric symptoms, and marital adjustment. In addition, it assessed the role of several contributors to the wives' secondary traumatization: the husband's PTSD, the level of his verbal and physical aggression, and the wife's level of self-disclosure. METHODS: The study compared three groups of Israeli wives: wives of POWs with PTSD (N=18), wives of POWs without PTSD, (N=64), and a control group of wives of veterans without PTSD (N=72). RESULTS: The highest level of distress in all measures was endorsed by the wives of POWs with PTSD. Moreover, in addition to husband's PTSD and captivity, both the man's aggression and the wife's self-disclosure played a role in the wife's level of distress. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that the husbands' PTSD was more strongly associated with the wives' secondary traumatization than their captivity.
Adult↗
Coping resources of women with premenstrual syndrome.
The purpose of this study was to determine what coping resources are used by women who suffer from premenstrual syndrome (PMS), and to compare the coping resources used with those of a normative population. Two hundred forty-four women volunteered to be in the study. After screening and a 3-month lapse time required for diary completion, 54 subjects remained in the study. A history developed by the researchers, menstrual diaries, and the Coping Resources Inventory (CRIS) were used in data collection. The findings indicate a statistically significant relationship between the dependent variable, severity of PMS, and the independent variables, self-disclosure, stress monitoring, social support, and structure. There was a positive relationship between self-disclosure and stress monitoring with severity of PMS, and an inverse relationship between social support and structuring and severity of PMS.
Adaptation, Psychological↗
Boundaries in psychotherapy supervision.
OBJECTIVE: This study examines the perceptions of trainees and supervisors on the boundaries of the supervisory relationship. METHOD: A 19-item questionnaire about the appropriateness of the actions of a psychotherapy supervisor was completed by 43 supervisors and 52 trainees. It was distributed at Grand Rounds and mailed out to psychotherapy supervisors in the community. RESULTS: Generally, trainees and supervisors agreed about the boundaries of supervision. Only one item indicated a significant difference between trainees and supervisors. Trainees considered the discussion of sexual fantasies as less appropriate than did supervisors. Using factor analysis, two scales accounted for 66% of the common variance. Supervisors scored higher than trainees on scale 1 (F = 5.14, df = 1.92, p = .03) and women scored lower than men on scale 2 (F = 9.88, df = 1.92, p = .002). CONCLUSION: Scale 1, a set of items related to sexual topics, revealed a significant difference in supervisor/trainee response with supervisors considering discussion of sexual items as appropriate compared to trainees. Scale 2, a set of items related to self-disclosure, revealed a significant difference with male respondents favoring looser boundaries and more self-disclosure than female respondents. The boundaries of the supervisory relationship are important concerns for our profession. This is the first study to provide an empirical evaluation of perceptions of trainees and supervisors on aspects of boundaries in the supervisory relationship. If the findings are replicated, they could contribute to future analysis of trainee/supervisor relationships. The maintenance of good boundaries between trainees and supervisors is crucial to the integrity of the supervisory relationship.
Factor Analysis, Statistical↗
Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys.
This research addresses a new construct, co-rumination. Co-rumination refers to extensively discussing and revisiting problems, speculating about problems, and focusing on negative feelings. Friendship research indicates that self-disclosure leads to close relationships; however, coping research indicates that dwelling on negative topics leads to emotional difficulties. Co-rumination is a single construct that integrates both perspectives and is proposed to be related both to positive friendship adjustment and problematic emotional adjustment. Third-, fifth-, seventh-, and ninth-grade participants (N = 608) responded to questionnaires, including a new measure of co-rumination. Co-rumination was related to high-quality, close friendships and aspects of depression and anxiety. Girls reported co-ruminating more than did boys, which helped to account for girls' more positive friendship adjustment and greater internalizing symptoms. Other analyses addressed whether co-rumination and the related constructs of self-disclosure and rumination had different relations with friendship and emotional adjustment.
Affect↗
Maladaptive antisocial aggressive behavior and outlets for intimacy.
Psychotherapy research literature suggests that maladjustment and self-disclosure patterns are related. Male psychiatric patients (23-37 years) were selected according to a stratified random sampling procedure with conditions for Ss: (a) who actually have engaged in maladaptive antisocial aggression (N = 41); (b) who exhibited aggressive impulses, urges, or fantasies (N = 111); and (c) who served as patient (N = 105) and non-patient (N = 137) controls. Results of this study supported the prediction that those patients who actually engaged in maladaptive antisocial aggression employed fewer outlets for self-disclosure than any of the other patient or non-patient groupings. Clinical implications that concerned the actual range of an individual's outlets for intimacy as predictive of maladaptive antisocial aggression in male adults were discussed.
Adult↗
Social skills and the stress-protective role of social support.
Cross-sectional analyses of data collected from a large sample of incoming college freshmen were used to determine whether the perceived availability of social support protects persons from stress-induced depressive affect; whether social competence, social anxiety, and self-disclosure are responsible for the stress-protective effect of perceived social support; and whether these social skill measures discriminate among persons for whom support will help, hinder, or be ineffective in the face of stress. Prospective analyses based on the original testing (beginning of school year) and 11- and 22-week follow-ups of a randomly selected subsample were used to determine how the same social skill factors influence the development and maintenance of support perceptions and of friendships. Evidence is provided for a stress-buffering role of the perceived availability of social support. The stress-buffering effect is unaffected by controls for the possible stress-protective influences of social anxiety, social competence, and self-disclosure. Although these social skill factors do not discriminate among persons for whom support will help, hinder, or be ineffective, they are prospectively predictive of the development of both social support and friendship formation. These prospective relations between social skills and the development of perceived availability of social support are only partly mediated by number of friends.
Adolescent↗
Parent-adolescent communication.
This project involved the development of a questionnaire for measuring parent-adolescent communication on both process and content dimensions. The six process dimensions, chosen on the basis of available literature, were: frequency, initiation, recognition, self-disclosure, domination and satisfaction. Six-point scales with clearly defined scale points were designed for each dimension. Fourteen content areas were also chosen and these were selected to include areas representative of two dimensions: general principles vs. specific issues, and external social reference vs. intrafamily references. First-year university students rated their interactions with their mothers, fathers and both parents together on each of the six process dimensions for each of the fourteen content areas. Parents were asked to rate the same items in the way they thought their adolescent son or daughter would rate them. Results were analysed separately for each process dimension using discriminant analysis, with sex of parent and sex of adolescent as independent variables. Overall, adolescents of both sexes tended to communicate more with mothers than with fathers over a wide range of areas. In fact, politics was the only area on which subjects talked more with fathers than mothers. Also, more self-disclosure occurred to mothers than to fathers, with daughters disclosing more to mothers than did sons. Mothers were also more accurate than fathers at predicting adolescents' responses. The usefulness of the questionnaire for exploring this important area of parent-adolescent communication will be discussed.
Adolescent↗
Predictors of success in emotionally focused marital therapy.
This study examined client variables expected to predict success in emotionally focused marital therapy (EFT), now the second most validated form of marital therapy after the behavioral approaches. The relationship of attachment quality, level of emotional self-disclosure, level of interpersonal trust, and traditionality to the therapy outcome variables, marital adjustment, intimacy, and therapist ratings of improvement, was examined. These variables were chosen for their relevance to the theory and practice of EFT and to intimate relationships in general. Overall, therapeutic alliance predicted successful outcome; the task dimension of the alliance in particular predicted couples' satisfaction. More specifically, one dimension of female partners' trust, their faith in their partner, predicted couples' satisfaction at follow-up. Females' faith also significantly predicted males' level of intimacy at follow-up. Males who were most likely to be nondistressed at termination indicated higher levels of proximity seeking on an attachment measure at intake, and older males and males whose partners had higher levels of faith in them were more likely to be nondistressed at follow-up. Traditionality was not found to be significantly related to outcome. Couples who made the most gains at follow-up also indicated lower initial marital satisfaction and included males who indicated lower levels of use of attachment figure on the attachment measure at intake. Males who made the largest gains at termination were older and were rated as less expressive by their partner on self-disclosure measures at intake. Age was the only variable significantly related to males' gains in satisfaction at follow-up. Implications for the practice of marital therapy and future research are delineated.
Adult↗
Physician-patient relationship and disclosure behaviour in chronic hepatitis C in a group of German outpatients.
OBJECTIVES: In chronic hepatitis C infection, the doctor-patient relationship can be burdened for various reasons. Factors associated with the doctor-patient relationship and self-disclosure of hepatitis C virus (HCV) status have not so far been investigated systematically. The goal of the study was to examine self-disclosure of HCV positivity, perceived stigmatization, and potential predictor variables in a German outpatient group. METHODS: In a cross-sectional single-centre study, we included a volunteer sample of 103 HCV outpatients. Patient recruitment was between March 2003 and September 2004. Data were obtained from a fully standardized face-to-face interview [HCV disclosure behaviour (main interview variable), stigmatization, doctor-patient relationship] and psychometric self-assessment questionnaires [Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, German version; Symptom Checklist-90 Revised (global severity index); Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (total score)]. RESULTS: The overall general disclosure rate was 44.7% (with respect to all physicians). However, 75% stated revealing their positive serostatus in future physician appointments (P < 0.05). With respect to family/friends, disclosure rates were clearly higher (permanent partner, 99%; average, 76.7%). Patients' disclosure behaviour could not be predicted by sociodemographic variables or personality factors (binary logistic regression, P > 0.05). Similarly, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and Symptom Checklist-90 subscales were not substantially associated with HCV disclosure. Experiences of stigmatization (rate 38.8%) were more frequent in women (P = 0.014) and patients with higher depression scores (P = 0.029). CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for education in the field of chronic hepatitis C in order to improve the physician-patient relationship. HCV disclosure rates might thus be increased and the frequency of problematic contacts reduced. Importantly, the data show that physicians should explicitly ask for the patients' HCV status because unrequested disclosure cannot be taken for granted.
Adult↗
Pathways to self-knowledge. Private reflections and mutual supervision and other shared communications.
As part of a national survey of analysts in the American Psychoanalytic Association, analysts responding to the questionnaire reported the different ways in which they continued their self-explorations stimulated by their work with patients. Twenty-six of these analysts were interviewed about this process. Their responses clustered in four groupings; (1) analysts who revealed their self-reflections in writing; (2) analysts who used their self-discoveries in teaching; (3) analysts who communicated their self-discoveries to only a few people most often a spouse and one or two close friend-colleagues; and (4) analysts who participated in peer groups or had several friends and/or friend-colleagues with whom they were mutually self-disclosing. Subsequently, ten analysts were interviewed specifically about mutual supervision and self and other exploration in this process. This paper presents data about the frequency and methods of these reporting analysts' self-enquiry and their ideas about privacy and self-disclosure in relation to their self-reflections. The role of transference in self-revelation to peers is discussed in respect of its regressive and non-regressive aspects.
Cognition↗
Communication Style: a clue to unplanned pregnancy.
This investigation compared the communication patterns of women who had never been pregnant with those of women who had had two or more unplanned pregnancies. A six-part questionnaire assessing communication skills, social orientation and involvement, self-disclosure, physical accessibility and verbal defensiveness was administered to fifty-six paid subjects from family planning clinics in the San Francisco Bay Area. Significant differences in communication skills, depth of self-disclosure, physical accessibility, and verbal defensiveness were found. The study suggests that the communicative inadequacies in the women with multiple unplanned pregnancies may be critical factors in contraceptive failure.
Adult↗
Sex and couples therapy: a method of treatment to enhance physical and emotional intimacy.
It has been well documented that couples presenting for sex therapy frequently have difficulties in resolving conflict and in expressing emotional as well as physical intimacy. Recent studies have shown that intimacy is an important variable in determining the health or pathology in the dyadic system. Furthermore, the level of intimacy is influenced by a capacity for self disclosure and an ability to consider the partner's opinion. This paper describes a method of treatment that combines well-known strategies to treat sexual problems with a new approach to couples therapy, which encourages self-disclosure to facilitate mutual understanding, decrease conflict, and increase intimacy.
Adult↗
Interpersonal attraction and rewarding aspects of disclosure content and level.
The relationship between self-disclosure and interpersonal attraction was viewed within the context of theories of social penetration and social exchange. The effects of similarity of disclosure level and similarity in content of disclosure on interpersonal attraction were assessed. Specifically, 24 high-self-disclosing subjects and 24 low-self-disclosing subjects were presented with four bogus inventories manipulated on the variables of agreement in content and amount of disclosure. The reward potential of various factors within the disclosure process were measured by the subject's attraction to these four hypothetical strangers. Results indicated that along with amount of disclosure, similarity in the content of the disclosed material and similarity between the subject's and another's level of disclosure had a positive influence on attraction.
Adolescent↗