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PubMed2006

Region-specific effects of STW 5 (Iberogast) and its components in gastric fundus, corpus and antrum.

Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a disorder that involves impaired gastric accommodation, antral hypomotility, and upper abdominal pain. The herbal drug STW 5 (Iberogast) is used to successfully treat FD patients. Here, we report in vitro data revealing the mode of action of STW 5 and its individual herbal extracts on gastric motility. STW 5 evoked a relaxation of the proximal stomach but increased antral motility. Both effects are myogenic. The extracts of Angelica root, chamomile flower and liquorice root mimicked the inhibitory effects in the proximal stomach whereas the extracts of greater celandine herb, Melissa leaf, caraway fruit and bitter candy tuft increased motility of the proximal stomach. All extracts increased motility in the antrum comparable to the effects of STW 5. We conclude that the differential effects of STW 5 on proximal and distal stomach motor activity are not caused by solely spasmolytic or anti-spasmolytic effects of the individual components. It is suggested that the individual extracts target transduction mechanisms that are specifically expressed in the proximal vs. distal stomach. We present a rationale for the differential effect of STW 5 which is a result of the combined actions of its individual components and reason that the inhibitory effects in the proximal and the excitatory effects in the distal stomach may contribute to symptom relief in FD patients treated with STW 5 (Iberogast).

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Increased caffeine and nicotine consumption in community-dwelling patients with schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION: It is known that people with schizophrenia make poor dietary choices and smoke at alarmingly high rates. There is also anecdotal evidence that they may ingest large amounts of caffeine. However, while smoking habits in this population have been examined, no recent study has quantified caffeine consumption taking into account various dietary caffeine sources unrelated to coffee including convenience foods such as candy bars, chocolate or soft drinks, and compared results to US population data. METHODS: We employed 24-h diet recalls to assess dietary habits in a sample of outpatients suffering from schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Caloric intake and caffeine consumption were quantified and the relationship to various sociodemographic variables including body mass index (BMI) and dietary quality was examined. RESULTS: 146 patients were recruited. Mean BMI in the sample was 32.7+/-7.9. Patients ingested 3,057+/-1,132 cal on average. Patients smoked at higher rates (59.6% vs. 23.4%, p< or =0.001), higher numbers of cigarettes/day (24+/-14.4 vs. 13.5+/-11.3, t=8.549, p<0.001) and ingested more caffeine (471.6+/-584.6 mg vs. 254.2+/-384.9 mg, t=6.664, p<0.001) than US population comparisons. Caffeine consumption was correlated to the number of cigarettes smoked daily (r=0.299, p< or =0.001), but not to BMI (r=0.134, p=0.107) or dietary parameters such as caloric intake (r=0.105, p=0.207). CONCLUSION: Community-dwelling schizophrenia patients consume significantly more caffeine and nicotine than US population comparisons. Clinicians should be aware that while a significant proportion of patients are overweight and have poor dietary quality - which merits lifestyle counseling on its own - there is a lack of correlation between those factors and smoking and caffeine intake. Thus, lifestyle modification counseling in all patients should address smoking and caffeine intake concurrently.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Antioxidant status of young children: response to an antioxidant supplement.

OBJECTIVE: To study oxidative stress indicators in healthy young children and their response to a commercially available fruit- and vegetable-based antioxidant supplement. DESIGN: Healthy children were randomly assigned to a placebo and a supplement (commercial antioxidant supplement produced from dried fruit and vegetable extracts and fortified with antioxidants, resembling a gummy-type candy). The placebo and the supplement were taken in 2 doses per day for 21 days. SUBJECTS: Participants were 39 children (26 boys and 13 girls) aged 5 to 10 years. Research was conducted at Primary Children's Medical Center and the University of Utah, Salt Lake City. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Breath and urine samples were collected on days 1 and 21 and assayed for breath pentane and urine 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, malondialdehyde, nitrites, and 8-isoprostane as noninvasive indicators of oxidative stress. Urine oxygen radical absorbance capacity was measured at days 1 and 21 as an indirect indicator of the antioxidant capacity of the body. Three-day food records were collected at the beginning and end of the study to measure intake of dietary fruit; vegetable; and antioxidant vitamins A, C, and E. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Descriptive statistics, repeated measures analysis of variance, paired t tests, and Pearson r correlations. RESULTS: Markers of oxidative stress were not significantly different between the placebo and supplement groups at day 1 or day 21. The oxidative stress indicators of the healthy children in this study appear to be similar to those of healthy adults and were not changed by antioxidant supplementation. The diet record analyses indicated that mean fruit and vegetable intakes (2.75 servings/day) were similar to the national average intake for children in the United States. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: This research presents original information on the subject of oxidative stress in healthy children. The results of this study may be useful as reference baseline markers to use in conjunction with clinical dietary evaluations and for future research with healthy children and with children in disease states who are subject to elevated levels of oxidative stress.

8-Hydroxy-2'-Deoxyguanosine↗
PubMed2002

School food policies and practices: a state-wide survey of secondary school principals.

OBJECTIVE: To describe food-related policies and practices in secondary schools in Minnesota. DESIGN: Mailed anonymous survey including questions about the secondary school food environment and food-related practices and policies. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Members of a statewide professional organization for secondary school principals (n = 610; response rate: 463/610 = 75%). Of the 463 surveys returned, 336 met the eligibility criteria (current position was either principal or assistant principal and school included at least one of the grades of 9 through 12). STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Descriptive statistics examined the prevalence of specific policies and practices. Chi2 analysis examined associations between policies and practices and school variables. RESULTS: Among principals, 65% believed it was important to have a nutrition policy for the high school; however, only 32% reported a policy at their school. Principals reported positive attitudes about providing a healthful school food environment, but 98% of the schools had soft drink vending machines and 77% had contracts with soft drink companies. Food sold at school fundraisers was most often candy, fruit, and cookies. APPLICATIONS: Dietetics professionals who work in secondary school settings should collaborate with other key school staff members and parents to develop and implement a comprehensive school nutrition policy. Such a policy could foster a school food environment that is supportive of healthful food choices among youth.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMed2000

Sample preparation for the analysis of flavors and off-flavors in foods.

Off-flavors in foods may originate from environmental pollutants, the growth of microorganisms, oxidation of lipids, or endogenous enzymatic decomposition in the foods. The chromatographic analysis of flavors and off-flavors in foods usually requires that the samples first be processed to remove as many interfering compounds as possible. For analysis of foods by gas chromatography (GC), sample preparation may include mincing, homogenation, centrifugation, distillation, simple solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, pressurized-fluid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, Soxhlet extraction, or methylation. For high-performance liquid chromatography of amines in fish, cheese, sausage and olive oil or aldehydes in fruit juice, sample preparation may include solvent extraction and derivatization. Headspace GC analysis of orange juice, fish, dehydrated potatoes, and milk requires almost no sample preparation. Purge-and-trap GC analysis of dairy products, seafoods, and garlic may require heating, microwave-mediated distillation, purging the sample with inert gases and trapping the analytes with Tenax or C18, thermal desorption, cryofocusing, or elution with ethyl acetate. Solid-phase microextraction GC analysis of spices, milk and fish can involve microwave-mediated distillation, and usually requires adsorption on poly(dimethyl)siloxane or electrodeposition on fibers followed by thermal desorption. For short-path thermal desorption GC analysis of spices, herbs, coffee, peanuts, candy, mushrooms, beverages, olive oil, honey, and milk, samples are placed in a glass-lined stainless steel thermal desorption tube, which is purged with helium and then heated gradually to desorb the volatiles for analysis. Few of the methods that are available for analysis of food flavors and off-flavors can be described simultaneously as cheap, easy and good.

Flavoring Agents↗
PubMed1981

Automated on-line multi-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatographic techniques for the clean-up and analysis of water-soluble samples.

The application of an automated on-line multi-dimensional liquid-liquid chromatographic technique for the clean-up and analysis of water-soluble samples was investigated. The use of microparticulate aqueous-compatible steric exclusion columns as the primary separation step coupled to either reversed-phase, normal-phase or ion-exchange columns as the secondary step allowed the direct injection of complex samples without prior clean-up. The entire operation was automatically controlled by a microprocessor-based liquid chromatograph with time-programmable events which allowed precise switching of high-pressure pneumatically operated valves. Both heart-cutting and on-column concentration methods were used. The heart-cutting technique had the advantage of selectivity but lacked sensitivity; more successful was the on-column concentration technique, which, by the concentration of the solute from a larger volume of exclusion column effluent on to the secondary column, gave better sensitivity. The technique was applied to the analysis of theophylline and caffeine in biological fluids, catecholamines in urine, vitamins in a protein food supplement and sugars in molasses and candy bars.

Body Fluids↗
PubMed1992

Olfactory performance during childhood. I. Development of an odorant identification test for children.

Because there has been no suitable diagnostic instrument for evaluation of olfaction in children, we designed an odorant identification test for that purpose. We screened 40 microencapsulated odorants ("scratch 'n' sniff" cards) by randomly grouping them into 40 overlapping sets of five odorants each. Forty-one children, 4 and 5 years of age, tried to identify each test odorant, selecting their responses from among five photographs depicting the substances in the set of odorants. We used the results to select a subset of five odorants (baby powder, bubble gum, candy cane, fish, and orange). To determine how well these odorants could be identified by normal children, we tested another 134 subjects, 3 1/2 to 13 years of age. For children 3 1/2 years to 5 years 4 months of age, the mean (+/- SEM) percentage of correct responses increased from 66% +/- 8% to 92% +/- 2%. Thereafter the mean percentage of correct responses remained at a plateau of about 90%. The 10th percentile for the percentage of correct responses tended to be higher for girls than for boys throughout childhood. We concluded that this set of five odorants can be correctly identified by most normal children 5 years of age or older. The performances of three older subjects with Kallmann syndrome were all subnormal, but the overall efficacy of the test for evaluating children with olfactory deficits needs to be determined.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1997

Adaptation to capsaicin within and across days.

Subjects judged the time-course of the burn caused by 100 ppm capsaicin applied to the tongue on Day 1 and Day 5. On Days 2-4, they tasted hard candy containing capsaicin. Most subjects did not show adaptation within Day 1, but either plateaued after about 16 min or rose monotonically for the entire 34 min. Intensity was less on Day 5 and levelled off or declined for most subjects. Data were fit to a mathematical model of adaptation. Adaptation across days was accounted for by changes in the gains of the three processes.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2000

MDMA stimulus generalization to the 5-HT(1A) serotonin agonist 8-hydroxy-2- (di-n-propylamino)tetralin.

The abused substance N-methyl-1-(3, 4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-aminopropane, or MDMA, serves as a training drug in animals. Because the 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist NAN-190 has been shown to partially antagonize the MDMA stimulus, and because NAN-190 binds at several different types of receptors, in the present study we examined other agents (e.g., adrenergic, dopaminergic, sigma) in tests of stimulus generalization and stimulus antagonism to determine their influence on the MDMA stimulus. Each of these agents (i.e., clenbuterol, S(-)propranolol, R(+)SCH-23390, amantadine, NANM) was without effect on MDMA-appropriate responding. The finding that NAN-190 behaves as a 5-HT(1A) partial agonist in some studies prompted examination of the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-OH DPAT and its optical isomers. MDMA-stimulus generalization occurred to racemic 8-OH DPAT (ED(50) = 0.3 mg/kg), R(+)8-OH DPAT (ED(50) = 0.2 mg/kg), and to the 5-HT(1A) receptor partial agonist S(-)8-OH DPAT (ED(50) = 0.4 mg/kg). The results suggest that the MDMA stimulus might possess a 5-HT(1A) component of action. Furthermore, because 8-OH DPAT is known to enhance the stimulus effects of hallucinogens as discriminative stimuli, and because MDMA reportedly enhances the effects of hallucinogenic agents in humans ("flipping," "candy flipping"), this latter MDMA-induced phenomenon might involve a 5-HT(1A) mechanism.

8-Hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin↗
PubMed1992

Pharmacy promotion of tobacco use among children in Massachusetts.

The role played by pharmacies in the promotion and distribution of tobacco to children was assessed in a survey of 100 pharmacies. Of the 100 surveyed, 95 sold tobacco products, 50 advertised tobacco, 42 advertised the cigarette brands that are most appealing to children, and 23 displayed the Camel cartoon advertisements that have been identified as being targeted specifically at children. Candy tobacco products were sold in 22% of the pharmacies. Of the pharmacies selling tobacco, 81% were willing to sell it to minors illegally. The five pharmacies that did not carry tobacco products were independent stores. When compared to chain pharmacies, independent pharmacies more frequently advertised tobacco (p less than 0.05) but were not more likely to sell it to children. The authors contend that pharmacists who sell tobacco violate the profession's Code of Ethics and play an important role in the promotion of tobacco use among children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Predictors of food preferences in adult humans.

Predictors of preferences for a wide variety of foods were examined in 303 male and female human subjects ranging from 14-68 years of age. The subjects completed questionnaires which requested information on the subject's sex, age, thinness, sensation seeking and ethnic background, as well as on the subjects' food preferences. Largely consistent with previous studies, female subjects reported higher preferences for low-calorie foods, candy and wine, and lower preferences for meat, beer, spicy foods and milk. Younger subjects reported higher preferences for sweet foods and lower preferences for foods such as chili pepper that are considered acquired tastes. Thinner subjects tended to rate both sweet foods and meat lower than did other subjects. Preferences for spicy foods or foods likely to cause illness were positively correlated with sensation seeking while preferences for sweet or bland foods or foods unlikely to cause illness were negatively correlated with sensation seeking. Subjects for whom the primary cuisine on which they were raised was Oriental cuisine preferred alcoholic beverages and non-Oriental foods less than did other subjects. A factor analysis of the food preferences yielded ten factors including those for meat and potatoes, alcohol, spices and junk food. Data on predictors of food preferences can assist research on the determinants of food preferences, however much of the variance in food preferences remains to be explained.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Effects of smoked marijuana on food intake and body weight of humans living in a residential laboratory.

Six adult male research volunteers, in two groups of three subjects each, lived in a residential laboratory for 13 days. All contact with the experimenter was through a networked computer system and subjects' behaviors, including food intake, were continuously recorded. During the first part of the day, subjects remained in continuously recorded. During the first part of the day, subjects remained in their private rooms doing planned work activities, and during the remainder of the day, they were allowed to socialize. Two cigarettes containing active marijuana (2.3% delta 9 THC) or placebo were smoked during both the private work period and the period of access to social activities. Smoked active marijuana significantly increased total daily caloric intake by 40%. Increased food intake was evident during both private and social periods. The increase in caloric intake was due to an increased consumption of snack foods as a consequence of an increase in the number of snacking occasions. There was no significant change in caloric consumption during meals. The principal increase within the category of snack foods was in the intake of sweet solid items, e.g., candy bars, compared to sweet fluid, e.g., soda, or savory solid items, e.g., potato chips. Increases in body weight during periods of active marijuana smoking were greater than predicted by caloric intake alone.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Changes in masticatory patterns after bilateral fracture of the mandibular condylar process.

PURPOSE: Because the morphology of the temporomandibular joint is thought to control movements of the mandible during mastication, bilateral fractures of the condylar process should disrupt masticatory patterns. The purposes of this study were 1) to document changes in masticatory patterns after such fractures, and 2) to determine whether and when normal masticatory patterns are recovered. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-two patients (15 men and 7 women) were examined at 6 weeks, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years after bilateral condylar process fractures. Patients were age and sex matched to a control sample. Incisor movements in three dimensions, along with muscle activity from the anterior temporalis, posterior temporalis, and superficial masseter, were recorded at 500 Hz during mastication of a gummy candy. RESULTS: Although the patients showed no reduction of interincisal opening during mastication, the opening was achieved with reduction of anterior translation of the condyles. Patients had significantly narrower chewing cycles, with significantly lower adductor muscular effort during the closing phases of mastication. Differences from controls were no longer detectable 1 year after the fractures. CONCLUSION: The amount of opening during mastication may appear clinically normal in patients with bilateral condylar process fractures. However, disruption of controlling structures and lateral pterygoid function appears to reduce the amount of anterior translation and lateral excursion during the chewing cycle. Reduced adductor muscle activity during the closing phases may reduce loads on the fractured condylar processes. In general, these patients recover normal masticatory cycles within 1 year.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Development of "hot" executive function: the children's gambling task.

Development of affective decision-making was studied in 48 children at two ages (3 and 4 years) using a simplified version of the Iowa Gambling Task (). On each of 50 trials, children chose from 1 of 2 decks of cards that, when turned, displayed happy and sad faces, corresponding to rewards (candies) won and lost, respectively. Cards in 1 deck offered more rewards per trial, but were disadvantageous across trials due to occasional large losses; cards in the other deck offered fewer rewards per trial, but were advantageous overall. On later trials, 4-year-olds made more advantageous choices than 3-year-olds, and 4-year-olds made more advantageous choices than would be expected by chance, whereas 3-year-olds made more disadvantageous choices than would be expected by chance. These findings, which were especially pronounced for girls, indicate that affective decision-making develops rapidly during the preschool period, possibly reflecting the growth of neural systems involving orbitofrontal cortex.

Affect↗
PubMed2003

Concentrations of nine alkenylbenzenes, coumarin, piperonal and pulegone in Indian bidi cigarette tobacco.

Indian-made bidi cigarettes sold in the United States are available in a variety of exotic (e.g. clove, mango) and candy-like (e.g. chocolate, raspberry) flavors. Because certain tobacco flavorings contain alkenylbenzenes and other toxic or carcinogenic chemicals, we measured the concentration of flavor-related compounds in bidi tobacco using a previously developed method. Twenty-three brands of bidis were sampled using automated headspace solid-phase microextraction and subsequently analyzed for 12 compounds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Two alkenylbenzene compounds, trans-anethole and eugenol, were found in greater than 90% of the brands analyzed. Methyleugenol, pulegone and estragole were each detected in 30% or more of the brands, whereas safrole and elemicin were not detected in any of the brands. The flavor-related compounds with the highest tobacco concentrations were eugenol (12,000 microg/g tobacco) and trans-anethole (2200 microg/g tobacco). The highest eugenol and trans-anethole concentrations found in bidi tobacco were about 70,000 and 7500 times greater, respectively, than the highest levels previously found in US cigarette brands. Measurement of these compounds is crucial to evaluation of potential risks associated with inhaling highly concentrated flavor-related compounds from bidis or other tobacco products.

Allylbenzene Derivatives↗
PubMed2003

Foreign bodies in the aerodigestive tract in pediatric patients.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate pediatric foreign body cases in the aerodigestive tract, and to elucidate the characteristic problems in Japan. METHODS: A total of 310 pediatric patients (age 15 or below), gathered from two medical university hospitals (University of Tokyo and Jichi Medical School), were included in this study. Data were collected by retrospective chart review and were statistically analyzed. RESULTS: Two-year-olds were the most common patients, and the range from age 1 to age 4 included 67.7% of all the patients. The most involved sites were the nose (39.4%) and the pharynx (38.4%), followed by the esophagus (12.9%) and the trachea-bronchi (6.5%). Fish bones and toys were the representative foreign bodies (30.7 and 13.6%, respectively). Other foreign bodies often encountered included coins, food, candy, peanuts and nuts, and batteries. The type of foreign body was closely related to the site in which foreign bodies were lodged: 77.3% of foreign bodies in the pharynx were fish bones, and toys were the most common impacted foreign body in the nose. In the esophagus, representative impacted foreign bodies were coins (35.7%), but disk-type battery ingestion has been increasing in recent years. Although most foreign bodies in the esophagus were safely removed, one case of a disk-type battery had a serious sequela. In the trachea-bronchi, peanuts, food, cotton, and coins were impacted. A rigid bronchoscope was basically used to remove foreign bodies, but in some cases, a fine flexible endoscope, with a channel for fiber forceps, was useful, because it could be inserted into narrow bronchi. Advance of a flexible endoscope will make it an excellent tool for diagnosis and management of the trachea-bronchial foreign body. CONCLUSIONS: Fish bones in the pharynx, which were closely related to Japanese eating habits, and toys in the nose, were the typical foreign bodies encountered in this study. In the esophagus, an increased incidence of disk-type battery ingestion has become a serious problem in recent years. Since prevention is the most essential way to manage foreign body cases, feedback from studies to public education should be encouraged.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Eating patterns and obesity in children. The Bogalusa Heart Study.

BACKGROUND: Childhood obesity is a growing public health problem. This study examined the association between eating patterns and overweight status in children who participated in the Bogalusa Heart Study. METHODS: A single 24-hour dietary recall was collected on a cross-sectional sample of 1562 children aged 10 years (65% Euro-American [EA], 35% African American [AA]) over a 21-year period. Overweight was defined as body mass index greater than the 85th percentile using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reference standards. Multivariate logistic regression was used to investigate the association between eating patterns and overweight. RESULTS: Consumption of sweetened beverages (58% soft drinks, 20% fruit flavor drinks, 19% tea, and 3% coffee) (p<0.001); sweets (desserts, candy, and sweetened beverages) (p<0.001); meats (mixed meats, poultry, seafood, eggs, pork, and beef) (p<0.051); and total consumption of low-quality foods (p<0.01) were positively associated with overweight status. Total amount of food consumed, specifically from snacks, was positively associated with overweight status (p<0.05). There was a lack of congruency in the types of eating patterns associated with overweight status across four ethnic-gender groups. The percent variance explained from the eating pattern-overweight models was very small. The interaction of ethnicity and gender was significantly associated with overweight status (p<0.001). The odds of being overweight for EA males were 1.2 times higher than for AA females. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that numerous eating patterns were associated with overweight status, yet the odds of being overweight were very small. Additional studies are needed to confirm these findings in a longitudinal sample having multiple days of assessment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Elevated and sustained desire for sweet taste in african-americans: a potential factor in the development of obesity.

Oral habituation is a relatively long-lasting decrease in oral responsiveness that results from the repeated presentation of a single stimulus. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree of habituation to sweet-tasting foods and to determine whether there are differences in the rate of habituation between African Americans and European Americans. These two groups were compared because the prevalence of obesity and obesity-related disorders such as diabetes and hypertension is significantly higher among African Americans than among European Americans. Nine different commercial foods and beverages that differed in sweetness intensity and caloric density served as stimuli. Subjects tasted and rated each food once per minute for a 30-min period on scales related to desire for another taste of the same sample and desire for a different taste. The stimuli and portion size for each of the 30 samples were two candy bars (Ultra Slim-Fast Cocoa Almond Crunch Bar, 1/16 of a bar; Natural Nectar Peanut Butter Granola Bar, 1/16 of a bar), three beverages (Nestea Lemon Flavored Instant Tea with NutraSweet, 5 mL; Welch's Grape Juice, 5 mL; Pink Swimmingo Kool-Aid, 5 mL), two gelatin desserts (Cherry Flavored Jell-O Gelatin, 5 g; Cherry Flavored Jell-O Gelatin with NutraSweet, 5 g), one enteral nutrition drink (Vanilla Ensure Plus, 5 mL), and one pudding (Ultra Slim-Fast Chocolate Pudding, 5 g). Subjects consumed the entire portion of each sample. Habituation occurred for seven of the nine foods as judged by a decrease in the desire for another taste of the same food. The degree of habituation for European Americans and African Americans was similar except for the sweetest food (Cherry Flavored Jell-O Gelatin with NutraSweet), for which African Americans showed no habituation. The degree of habituation in both groups was unrelated to caloric density. Overall, young African Americans had a significantly greater desire for another taste of the same food than did young European Americans for seven of the nine foods, and this desire was strongly correlated with the sweetness intensity for young African Americans but not for young European Americans. Furthermore, young African Americans had a greater desire than young European Americans for a different taste for seven of nine foods. The greater desire for intense sweet tastes may be a factor in the elevated incidence of obesity and diabetes in African Americans. In addition, young African Americans had greater perceived stress in this study than did young European Americans. If African Americans use sweet taste to compensate for feelings of stress, this compensation may also contribute to weight gain.

Adult↗