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PubMed2006

Spatial memory deficits in middle-aged mice correlate with lower exploratory activity and a subordinate status: role of hippocampal neurotrophins.

The aim of the present work was to relate age-related individual differences in cognitive function with behavioural strategies employed in social and non-social challenges. To this purpose, the behaviour of adult (5-month-old) and middle-aged (13-month-old) CD-1 mice was scored in the social interaction, plus-maze, Morris water maze (MWM) and open-field tests. In addition, brain levels of nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were analysed and correlated with the behaviours scored. Compared to adults, middle-aged mice showed greater anxiety in both non-social and social situations, spending less time in the open arms of the plus-maze and performing more freezing behaviour in response to aggression. Based upon their behaviour in the social interaction test, adult and middle-aged subjects were classified as dominant or subordinate and their behaviour in the open field, plus-maze and MWM tests subjected to factor analysis, taking into account age and social status. Results highlighted meaningful differences in exploratory strategies as a function of social status only in middle-aged subjects. In particular, middle-aged dominants were, overall, more explorative than same-aged subordinates, spending less time in peripheral areas and approaching more readily a novel object. Interestingly, in middle-aged mice, superior performance in the MWM task was associated with exploratory strategies exploited by dominants. At adulthood, BDNF hippocampal levels, but not specific behaviours, were positively correlated with the ability to learn a spatial task. Overall, data indicate that, in middle-aged subjects individual differences in exploratory strategies, rather than neurotrophin levels, are able to predict the degree of impairment in a spatial learning task.

Age Factors↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Subordinate performance appraisal: what nurses really want in their managers.

This project describes a process used to identify the important job behaviors of nursing managers as seen by their staff nurses. A questionnaire developed for this purpose was administered to thirty-nine staff nurses at the Tom Baker Cancer Centre in Calgary, Alberta. The questionnaire included behaviors of managers which were categorized as either contributing to "structure" or "consideration". Staff nurses were found to favor both high structure and high consideration behaviors in a nurse manager. Behaviors found in the questionnaire to be most valued became content items on the subordinate appraisal form developed as a result of this project. The Landy-Farr Model of Performance Appraisal guided the project development. Health care organizations in their efforts to improve productivity and the quality of work life for nurses should consider alternate methods of performance appraisal for nurse managers.

Alberta↗
PubMed1994

Differential fitness returns in relation to spatial position in groups.

1. A general overview of position-related fitness differences in group-living animals is given for the first time. 2. Differential fitness returns in groups are often related to competition for resources among group members due to resource limitation. If resources are very scarce, then competition may finally lead to the disbandment of groups. The encounter-dilution effect predicts that grouping confers a benefit if the conspicuousness of large groups does not outweigh the dilution effect and each predator or parasite attacks only one (or a few) prey per encounter (Uetz & Hieber, 1993). While the encounter-dilution effect limits the number of predators and parasites a group is faced with at a given time, marginal predation and communal defence are probably the most important factors for position-related differences in predation risk. 3. Limitation of resources increases competition between groups members and should widen the gap between fitness returns of dominant and subordinate group members. In some group-living animals such as schooling fish, however, predator pressure has apparently selected for uniformity in morphology and behaviour which presumably restricts the potential for resource competition (Magurran & Seghers, 1991). 4. A general problem of assessing individual fitness returns in that different short-term strategies may achieve the same long term goals (Magurran, 1993). The use of feeding rates and predation risks as currencies for fitness returns over short time periods is therefore questionable and can only be a first step. So far, hardly any information is available on long-term effects of differences in positioning behaviour. 5. Food availability and food intake rates tend to be higher in edge positions, whereas energy expenditure does not differ significantly with group position in non-roosting mobile groups. This suggests that edge positions achieve a higher net-energy pay-off and should therefore be preferred by individuals with low energy reserves. 6. Differential predation risks are well documented for stationary and colony-breeding species, but there is a lack of data for mobile, non-breeding species. The reason for the latter is that predation is rarely observed (in the field) and often difficult to relate to group position in fast-moving species such as flocks of birds. Further studies, especially in the field, are needed. 7. Vigilance rates and attack rates do not necessarily give a true reflection of mortality risk. Vigilance is not exclusively related to predation and can be confounded by competition effects and hunger. Attack rates are difficult to translate into per capita risks if hardly any mortality is observed and therefore little information is available about the ratio of successful attacks/total attacks. 8. Most of the literature up to date consists of descriptive studies. There is a need for experimental work that investigate (a) the influence of predator attack mode on differential predation risks; (b) the influence of internal states (such as hunger) on the tradeoff between predation risk and foraging behaviour and its consequences for the positioning behaviour in groups; (c) the 'egalitarian' nature of groups with respect to group position. Do all individuals continuously rotate positions? Or do dominant individuals monopolize certain positions?, and (d) that separate the effects of nutritional state, vigilance and food availability on feeding rates in different group positions. 9. Reproductive success is often related to group position in breeding colonies and lekking animal species. Females probably prefer the safer territories in the group centre, but more empirical data are required to test this hypothesis. 10. Position-related differences in parasitism rate between group members are well documented with per capita rate of parasitism being lower in the centre of groups than at the periphery.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1967

Fighting and death from stress in a cockroach.

Fighting behavior, leading to the establishment of stable dominant-subordinate relationships between pairs of males, is described for the cockroach Nauphoeta cinerea. Deaths, which do not appear to be due to external damage, occur in subordinate animals as a result of fighting. The situation is likened to death from stress as found in mammals.

Aggression↗
PubMed1981

A primate analogue of amphetamine-induced behaviors in humans.

The effects of amphetamine on individual and social behaviors were studied in two colonies of rhesus monkeys. After an initial base-line period, each animal, in turn, received low chronic drug administration for 3 weeks. Between each drug period new base-line data were collected. During amphetamine administration, there was a significant increase in the following behaviors: time spent in "sit tense" postures, frequency of orienting, and frequency of agonistic behaviors. In addition, significant changes were seen in the time spent in proximity with other members of the group. The results are discussed both in terms of across-animal changes as well as with regard to social factors, rank in the hierarchy, and affiliative relationships.

Agonistic Behavior↗
PubMed2004

Social stress affects circulating melatonin levels in rainbow trout.

In salmonid fishes there are indications that socially subordinate individuals avoid competition with larger, dominant fish by adjusting daily feeding and activity cycles. As in other vertebrates, the pineal organ and its hormone melatonin act as synchronizers of daily rhythms to the external light/dark cycle in salmonids. Social defeat may act as a potent stressor; inducing elevated glucocorticoid secretion and a general behavioral inhibition. Here, we show that social stress also affects circulating melatonin levels in rainbow trout, a species known to display strong dominance hierarchies both in the wild and under captive rearing. Subordinate individuals had significantly higher nighttime melatonin levels than dominant fish or controls. There was no effect of social rank on the much lower melatonin levels observed in animals sampled during the day. Correlations between circulating glucocorticoids and melatonin depended on circadian cycles as well as social context. This study suggests that altered melatonin production contributes to the physiological and behavioral profile of subordinate animals. Social status, and other determinants of the stress level of experimental animals, therefore should be taken into consideration as potential factors influencing the results from in vivo research on this hormone.

Agonistic Behavior↗
PubMed1996

Involvement of the brain catecholaminergic system in the regulation of dominant behavior.

The role of the brain catecholaminergic system in establishing dominant-subordinate relationships in mice of different genotypes was studied using inhibitors of tyrosine hydroxylase (alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine) or of dopamine-beta-hydroxylase (FLA-57) or FLA-57 plus the dopamine precursor, DOPA. Demotion in all dominant and subdominant animals was associated with decreased noradrenaline levels, but the aggressive behavior of dominant male mice depended on the noradrenaline/dopamine ratio. Alterations in this relationship seem to have specific effects on social dominance in animals in the micropopulation, as drug-treated mice do not exhibit changes in their general activity. It can be concluded that brain catecholamines are of prime importance in maintenance of dominance.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Relationship between social factors and pituitary-adrenocortical activity in female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta).

Psychosocial stress in humans has been related to the occurrence or progression of certain diseases and a positive social environment has been shown, in some cases, to ameliorate this effect. In many experimental studies changes in serum cortisol levels have been used as an endocrine-defined stress response, however, the variation in this measure under unchanging conditions in socially housed animals is not well documented. The present study was designed to examine the relationship between specific social behaviors and concentrations of serum cortisol in female rhesus monkeys. Subjects were members of one of two social groups. One was an established long-term (8 years) group with members which had from one to many kin, while the second was a group formed 5 months prior to the onset of the present study composed of initially unfamiliar animals. Blood samples were collected weekly and a total of 16 hr of behavioral data was collected on each subject. For purposes of analyses, the year-long study was organized according to calendar quarters (3 months) with cortisol concentrations averaged and behavioral categories cumulated. When regression techniques were applied, it is of note that neither group nor dominance rank was a predictor of cortisol levels. However, when a correlation analysis was applied to each group separately to assess the effect of dominance rank, rank significantly correlated with cortisol levels in the established but not in the recently formed group. In each quarter, analyses revealed behavioral categories which combined to account for a significant proportion of the variance in cortisol levels, but these behaviors were not identical over the four quarters. For three of the four quarters analyzed, and for the year as a whole, an affiliative behavioral category was predictive of cortisol levels in addition to agonistic behavioral categories. These data suggest that cortisol levels are influenced by not only negative interactions, such as receiving bites, but also by positive interactions such as receiving grooms. Results also showed that reconciliatory behaviors occurred significantly more frequently following dyadic agonistic episodes in the recently formed versus the long-term group. The higher rate of reconciliatory behaviors exhibited by the recently formed group may account for the lack of a dominance rank/cortisol relationship.

Aggression↗
PubMed2005

The influence of social environmental condition on the production of stress-induced 22 kHz calls in adult male Wistar rats.

Adult rats emit 22 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in response to aversive stimuli, and these sounds are suggested to have communicative information among conspecifics. It is conceivable that social environment during development of rats has relevance to the emission of 22 kHz USVs. To examine the effects of social environment after weaning on production of stress-induced USVs, we compared the amount of emission of USVs among three groups of rats reared under different conditions after weaning. One group of rats was housed individually, and the other two groups were housed in pairs, in which social hierarchy of the pair was determined by social dominance-subordination relationships. The USVs were induced by acute mild somatic stimuli on the back and neck. Individually reared rats emitted much fewer USVs than pair-reared rats. In addition, socially subordinate rats emitted more USVs compared with socially dominant ones. These results suggest that not only social interaction but also the status in social hierarchy may play an important role in the process of the development of USVs induced by somatic stimuli.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1990

Social status and nerve growth factor serum levels after agonistic encounters in mice.

Ten repeated daily interactions (20 min each) of the same pairs of isolated male mice produced a clear distinction between attacking (dominant) and defeated (subordinate) animals. The fighting level remained fairly constant over the 10 days. One hr after the end of the 10th session, the increase in serum NGF levels described previously (2) was significantly more marked in subordinate than in dominant mice. The mean level of serum NGF was correlated with the number of fighting episodes, particularly in the case of dominant individuals. Moreover, within-pair differences in NGF values were correlated with differences in locomotor activity between dominants and subordinates; this makes it possible that stimuli other than those produced by fighting per se may be responsible for the increase in circulating NGF. As is well known, the adrenal hypertrophy produced by fighting stress is more marked in subordinate than in dominant mice, while previous work has shown that stress of a nonpsychosocial kind does not elevate serum NGF levels. Therefore, the present data support the hypothesis that NGF release contributes to the modulation of adrenal function in a situation-specific fashion.

Aggression↗
PubMed1997

Female social reproductive roles affect central monoamines.

Central monoamines display a variety of activation patterns in different social groups, and among males and females. We addressed three social conditions for female lizards of the species Anolis carolinensis: Isolated, paired with a mate, and in a group of 5 competing for one mate. Among those in a group, only 1 or 2 females exhibited recrudescing ovaries. Individuals paired with a mate (for one month) exhibited ovarian growth, isolated animals (initial controls) had quiescent ovaries. Reproductively dominant females had significantly greater telencephalic 5-HIAA, and serotonergic activation, as indicated by the ratio of 5-HIAA to 5-HT. Telencephalic HVA as well as the HVA/DA ratio were also significantly greater in dominant females compared to all other groups. In contrast, serotonergic activation in brainstem was elevated in subordinate females only. These results suggest that serotonergic activation in telencephalon, found only in dominant females, not in other reproductively active females, is a function of the unique social role of a dominant female, possibly combining submissive behaviors toward a male with dominance over other females and competition for access to that male. Dopaminergic activation in telencephalon, also found only in dominant females, may be related to aggressive interactions with other females. Activation of serotonin in brainstem, found in this study in subordinate females and previously in males [C.H. Summers and N. Greenberg, Activation of central biogenic amines following aggressive interaction in male lizards, Anolis carolinensis, Brain Behav. Evol., 45 (1995) 339-349], may be associated with subordinate social status. Monoamines, involved in social behaviors, appear to be regionally specialized for dominant and subordinate social roles, in males [C.H. Summers and N. Greenberg, Activation of central biogenic amines following aggressive interaction in male lizards, Anolis carolinensis, Brain Behav. Evol., 45 (1995) 339-349][T.R. Summers, E.T. Larson, A.L. Hunter, K.J. Renner, N. Greenberg and C.H. Summers, Amygdalar serotonin mediates long-term social roles following aggressive interaction, Soc. Neurosci. Abs., 22 (1996) 1147] and females. Dominant females exhibit unique social position, behavior and monoamine profile whereas subordinate females and males have a similar serotonergic response in this species.

Aggression↗
PubMed2003

Factor analysis and validity of the Transplant Evaluation Rating Scale in a large bone marrow transplant sample.

OBJECTIVE: Clinical and methodological challenges are involved in screening bone marrow transplant (BMT) recipients for pretransplant psychosocial adjustment in an attempt to anticipate and prevent behavioral difficulties. Validity of the Transplant Evaluation Rating Scale (TERS), which quantifies the disparate salient elements in a structured clinical assessment, has not been adequately established. This study comprehensively investigated three questions about convergent, internal-structural, and predictive validity of the TERS: how indicative the TERS is of psychosocial difficulties; whether the TERS is uni- or multidimensional; to what degree the TERS predicts long-range adjustment during recovery posttransplant. METHODS: Pre-BMT, 345 consecutive patients were prospectively assessed and completed the MMPI. TERS ratings were assigned retrospectively by two raters (interrater reliability r=.89). RESULTS: The TERS showed good convergent validity relative to MMPI subscales, and a clear, simple, two-factor structure accounting for 47% of the variance. On a subset of our sample (n=29), the factor subscales, "Defiance" and "Emotional Sensitivity," exhibited differential predictive validity to functional status at 1 year posttransplant. CONCLUSIONS: This study, the first large-scale statistical investigation of TERS validity, provided evidence for the validity of the TERS on all three questions. The TERS is indeed indicative of psychosocial risk indexed by MMPI behavioral pathology. It has an understandable, clinically useful factor structure. Its subordinate constructs, Defiance and Emotional Sensitivity, can and should be distinguished conceptually and measured separately. The TERS has clinical utility for specifying behavioral concerns before and guiding proactive intervention after BMT.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2005

Rapid behavioral and genomic responses to social opportunity.

From primates to bees, social status regulates reproduction. In the cichlid fish Astatotilapia (Haplochromis) burtoni, subordinate males have reduced fertility and must become dominant to reproduce. This increase in sexual capacity is orchestrated by neurons in the preoptic area, which enlarge in response to dominance and increase expression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone 1 (GnRH1), a peptide critical for reproduction. Using a novel behavioral paradigm, we show for the first time that subordinate males can become dominant within minutes of an opportunity to do so, displaying dramatic changes in body coloration and behavior. We also found that social opportunity induced expression of the immediate-early gene egr-1 in the anterior preoptic area, peaking in regions with high densities of GnRH1 neurons, and not in brain regions that express the related peptides GnRH2 and GnRH3. This genomic response did not occur in stable subordinate or stable dominant males even though stable dominants, like ascending males, displayed dominance behaviors. Moreover, egr-1 in the optic tectum and the cerebellum was similarly induced in all experimental groups, showing that egr-1 induction in the anterior preoptic area of ascending males was specific to this brain region. Because egr-1 codes for a transcription factor important in neural plasticity, induction of egr-1 in the anterior preoptic area by social opportunity could be an early trigger in the molecular cascade that culminates in enhanced fertility and other long-term physiological changes associated with dominance.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Stress-induced changes in brain serotonergic activity, plasma cortisol and aggressive behavior in Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) is counteracted by L-DOPA.

Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) were tested for aggressive behavior using intruder tests, before and after 2 days of dyadic social interaction. Following social interaction, half of the dominant and half of the subordinate fish were given L-DOPA (10 mg/kg, orally), whereas the remaining dominant and subordinate fish were given vehicle. One hour following drug treatment, the fish were tested for aggressive behavior again in a third and final intruder test, after which blood plasma and brain tissue were sampled for analysis of plasma cortisol concentrations and brain levels of monoamines and monoamine metabolites. Subordinate fish showed a reduction in the number of attacks launched against the intruder, as well as an increase in attack latency, as compared to prior to dyadic social interactions. Social subordination also resulted in an elevation of brain serotonergic activity. Fish receiving L-DOPA prior to the final intruder test showed shorter attack latency than vehicle controls. Drug treatment was a stressful experience and vehicle controls showed elevated plasma cortisol levels and longer attack latency as compared to before treatment. L-DOPA-treated fish showed lower plasma levels of cortisol and lower serotonergic activity in certain brain areas than vehicle controls. These results suggest that L-DOPA counteracts the stress-induced inhibition of aggressive behavior, and at the same time inhibits stress-induced effects on brain serotonergic activity and plasma cortisol concentrations.

Aggression↗
PubMed1986

Social structure.

Socially feral horses live in stable social groups characterized by one adult male, a number of adult females, and their offspring up to 2 years of age. Extra males either live by themselves or with other males in bachelor groups. The bands occupy nondefended home ranges that often overlap. Many abnormal behaviors seen in domestic horses occur because some aspect of their normal social behavior cannot be carried out in captivity.

Animal Communication↗
PubMed2006

Seasonal changes in chronic social interactions and physiological states in female rat-like hamsters (Tscheskia triton).

We examined the behavioral characteristics and physiological states related to solitary lifestyle and dominant-subordinate relationships in female rat-like hamsters (Tscheskia triton), formerly known as Cricetulus triton. Wild adult hamsters were captured and caged singly in the laboratory during the non-breeding and breeding seasons. The experimental hamsters were subjected to 5 min staged dyadic encounters every day for 28 consecutive days by pairing two unfamiliar and weight matched females in a neutral arena. Aggressive behavior, defense and flank marking were quantified everyday within the first week and once each week during the last 3 weeks. Animals were then autopsied and their physiological and reproductive state assessed. Our results suggested that dominant-subordinate relationships could be established especially in non-breeding conditions, where the dominant displayed higher aggression and flank marking, and lower defense than its opponent. The breeding females followed this pattern except there was no difference in aggressive behavior, between the partners. The repeated encounters did not appear to reduce aggression or lead to amiable behavior or bonding. At the end of the experiment breeding females exhibited higher levels of serum estradiol, progesterone and corticosterone than non-breeding females. Both dominant and subordinate females in non-breeding condition had atrophied ovaries and uteri, whereas both dominant and subordinate females in breeding condition had hypertrophied ovaries and uteri. Non-breeding females possessed heavier and thicker flank glands than breeding females did. Dominant females displayed longer or thicker flank glands than subordinate did. Thus, our data suggest that the behavioral traits observed in our experiment support the solitary lifestyle of adult female rat-like hamsters and physiological state show some differences between social ranks or in both seasons.

Aggression↗
PubMed2002

Do tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) spontaneously deceive opponents? A preliminary analysis of an experimental food-competition contest between monkeys.

A new laboratory procedure which allows the study of deceptive behavior in nonhuman primates is described. Pairs of tufted capuchin monkeys faced each other in a food-competition contest. Two feeder boxes were placed between the monkeys. A piece of food was placed in one of the boxes. The subordinate individual was able to see the food and to open the box to obtain the bait. A dominant male was unable to see the food or to open the box but was able to take the food once the box was opened by the subordinate. In experiment 1, two of four subordinate monkeys spontaneously started to open the unbaited box first with increasing frequency. Experiment 2 confirmed that this "deceptive" act was not due to a drop in the rate of reinforcement caused by the usurping dominant male, under the situation in which food sometimes automatically dropped from the opened box. In experiment 3, two subordinate monkeys were rerun in the same situation as experiment 1. One of them showed some recovery of the "deceptive" act but the other did not; instead the latter tended to position himself on the side where there was no food before he started to open the box. Although the results do not clearly indicate spontaneous deception, we suggest that operationally defined spontaneous deceptive behaviors in monkeys can be analyzed with experimental procedures such as those used here.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Reproductive suppression in subordinate female highveld mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus pretoriae): no role for endogenous opioid peptides.

The influence of endogenous opioid peptides (EOPs) on plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) levels in subordinate female highveld mole-rats (Cryptomys hottentotus pretoriae) was investigated to elucidate the physiological mechanisms responsible for inhibiting their gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and/or LH release. The opioid antagonist naloxone was administered either alone or with GnRH. A single injection of naloxone failed to alter plasma LH levels in dominant reproductive females or in subordinate non-reproductive females in the presence or absence of their ovaries. Pituitary sensitivity to a GnRH challenge was not influenced by naloxone administered acutely or according to longer-term regimens in any of the treatment groups. The results suggest no role for EOPs at the level of the pituitary or hypothalamus in the socially induced infertility evident in non-reproductive female highveld mole-rats.

Analysis of Variance↗