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PubMed1999

Ten years of the rational analysis of cognition.

Rational analysis is an empirical program that attempts to explain the function and purpose of cognitive processes. This article looks back on a decade of research outlining the rational analysis methodology and how the approach relates to other work in cognitive science. We illustrate rational analysis by considering how it has been applied to memory and reasoning. From the perspective of traditional cognitive science, the cognitive system can appear to be a rather arbitrary assortment of mechanisms with equally arbitrary limitations. In contrast, rational analysis views cognition as intricately adapted to its environment and to the problems it faces.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

Stuck in the pleistocene: rationality and evolved social roles.

This article argues that an evolutionary psychological perspective could be useful for developing second-generation models of rationality. The standard model of complete rationality is inadequate primarily on the grounds that it generates predictions inconsistent with empirical data. The model is extremely useful and should not, nor cannot, realistically be dismissed. It accurately predicts outcomes in markets and openly competitive situations. However, behavioral phenomena that the standard theory has trouble explaining -- such as mass contribution to public goods, types of cooperation, and altruism -- are usually treated as "anomalies." These outcomes are too prevalent and important to be treated as such. I attempt to build upon Elinor Ostrom's proposal to generate new models of rationality, which recognize the use of heuristics, norms, and rules, and are able to better account for empirical findings. I argue that second-generation models would benefit from the acknowledgment of social roles -- but more specifically, evolved social roles. Evolved social roles are intuitive bundles of norms, expectations, and social strategies that shape an individual's player type. If we extend rationality to incorporate underlying biopsychological mechanisms, such as evolved social strategies and evolved social roles, then we gain an understanding of a wider array of decision-making processes and social phenomena.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1998

Random or rational design? Evaluation of diverse compound subsets from chemical structure databases.

The performance of rational design to maximize the structural diversity of databases for lead finding and lead refinement was investigated. Rational methods such as maximum dissimilarity methods or hierarchical cluster analysis for designing compound subsets were compared to a random approach to study their efficiency for an enhancement of the diversity of three different databases. All investigations were done based on 2D fingerprints as a validated molecular descriptor. To compare the performance of the rational selection methods to a random approach, we additionally used probability calculations. When using maximum dissimilarity-based selections, a single compound can be a member of different neighborhoods as defined by the similarity threshold value, while in hierarchical clustering each compound is assigned to only a single cluster. Therefore the relationship between the similarity threshold of the maximum diversity selection method and a 2D similarity search threshold was studied. In contrast to hierarchical clustering analysis, maximum dissimilarity selections allow to use a similarity threshold for adding a new compound to an already selected compound list. Reasonable values for this similarity threshold are presented here. More diverse subsets were designed using maximum dissimilarity selections, which cover more biological classes than using random selections. An optimally diverse subset without redundant structures containing only 38% of one original dataset was generated, where no structure is more similar than 0.85 to its nearest neighbor, but all biological classes were represented. When it is acceptable to cover only 90% of all biological targets, 3.5-3.7 times more compounds need to be selected using a random approach than in a rational design approach. Such coverage rate shows the highest efficiency of design techniques compared to a random approach. In those subsets no compound is closer than 0.70 to its nearest neighbor. Furthermore a comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) is used to evaluate designed and randomly chosen subsets for a database consisting of inhibitors of the angiotensin-converting enzyme. It was shown that designed subsets using maximum dissimilarity methods lead to more stable quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models with higher predictive power compared to randomly chosen compounds. This predictive power is especially high when there is no compound in the test dataset with a similarity coefficient less than 0.7 to its nearest neighbor in the training set.

Databases as Topic↗
PubMed1999

The relation of rational and experiential information processing styles to personality, basic beliefs, and the ratio-bias phenomenon.

A new version of the Rational-Experiential Inventory (REI), which measures rational and experiential thinking styles and includes subscales of self-reported ability and engagement, was examined in two studies. In Study 1, the two main scales were independent, and they and their subscales exhibited discriminant validity and contributed to the prediction of a variety of measures beyond the contribution of the Big Five scales. A rational thinking style was most strongly and directly related to Ego Strength, Openness, Conscientiousness, and favorable basic beliefs about the self and the world, and it was most strongly inversely related to Neuroticism and Conservatism. An experiential thinking style was most strongly directly related to Extraversion, Agreeableness, Favorable Relationships Beliefs, and Emotional Expressivity, and it was most strongly inversely related to Categorical Thinking, Distrust of Others, and Intolerance. In Study 2, a rational thinking style was inversely related and an experiential thinking style was unrelated to nonoptimal responses in a game of chance. It was concluded that the new REI is a significant improvement over the previous version and measures unique aspects of personality.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Considering situational and dispositional approaches to rational self-interest: an extension and response to de Dreu (2006).

The authors respond to C. K. W. De Dreu's (2006) critique of their article (B. M. Meglino & M. A. Korsgaard, 2004) published in the special section on Theoretical Models and Conceptual Analyses of the Journal of Applied Psychology. They maintain that De Dreu misinterprets their definitions and the psychological processes they addressed and thus raises a number of issues that are not relevant to their model. Meglino and Korsgaard's model focuses on the distinction between rational self-interest and other orientation, whereas the approach taken by De Dreu focuses on the distinction between rational self-interest and collective rationality. In this response, the authors clarify this distinction, address discrepancies between these two approaches, consider the effect of goals and rationality on other orientated behavior, and suggest directions for future research.

Altruism↗
PubMed1996

Reasoning the fast and frugal way: models of bounded rationality.

Humans and animals make inferences about the world under limited time and knowledge. In contrast, many models of rational inference treat the mind as a Laplacean Demon, equipped with unlimited time, knowledge, and computational might. Following H. Simon's notion of satisfying, the authors have proposed a family of algorithms based on a simple psychological mechanism: one-reason decision making. These fast and frugal algorithms violate fundamental tenets of classical rationality: They neither look up nor integrate all information. By computer simulation, the authors held a competition between the satisfying "Take The Best" algorithm and various "rational" inference procedures (e.g., multiple regression). The Take The Best algorithm matched or outperformed all competitors in inferential speed and accuracy. This result in an existence proof that cognitive mechanisms capable of successful performance in the real world do not need to satisfy the classical norms of rational inference.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1977

[Completion of the set of amino acids contained in high-protein wheat through the addition of protein feeds and L-lysine to rations fed to laying hens].

2 types of chick rations were fed to 8100 birds. A commercial type of food prepared on the basis of state-controlled standard formulas was used as control ration. The experimental food contained 84% of wheat; the proportion of protein feed in this ration had been reduced by 30%. The chick period was taken to last 8 weeks (controls and half of the experimental groups) or 12 weeks. Until the age of 8 weeks the growth rate of the control birds was by no means better than that of the experimental chicks (8.6 and 8.3 g per bird/day) although the control birds consumed more food (but same level of EFh consumption). At the age of 8 weeks the experimental birds were adjusted to a type of food fed to young hens. The apparently stress-induced lower level of food consumption of the experimental chicks in the period between the 9th and 12th week decreased the rate of weight gains and affected the whole analysis of data for the entire chick period ranging from 0 to 12 weeks (9.0 g per bird per day as compared to 9.6 g). This difference was compensated for in the further course of rearing. No significant differences in the demands for food, energy and crude protein were noticed until the age of 8 weeks. The mortality rates were the same in both groups (2.4% and 3.1%, alphaless than0.05). With regard to the criteria investigated the two rations appear to be equivalent. The 30% decrease in the proportion of protein feed may be regarded as being justified.

Amino Acids↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Effect of iodine, copper and zinc supplements to rations with a high quota of rapeseed extract meal on the growth and thyroid function of fattening swine. 3. The effect on weight and the histomorphometric findings in the thyroid and on the serum T3 and T4 concentrations].

Studies were made with a total of 272 fattening pigs. Iodine deficiency both in rations of soya bean meal and rape seed meal increased the weight of the thyroid gland and the height of the epithelium cells and significantly reduced the T4 and T3 level in the serum. Iodine supplements to the rape seed meal rations distinctly diminished the goitrogenic effect, did not, however, cancel it out. Stage of goiter and depression of consumption were--different shown by the T3 and T4 level in the serum. Highly significant relations were calculated between live weight gain, weight and the height of the epithelium cells on the one hand and the T4 level in the serum on the other. Iodine supplementations of rations without thyrostatic components should amount to greater than or equal to 0.1 mg/kg. Iodine supplementations of 0.5 mg/kg feed are at present recommended to rations with rape seed meal quotas of less than 8%.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1988

[The effect of sugar beets in the ration on metabolism in the forestomach of 11 to 20-week-old calves].

The influence of the replacement of cereals by sugar beet in the rations was tested with 6 calves supplied with re-entrant duodenal or ruminal cannulae in 4 measuring periods between their 11th and 17th weeks of life. The control ration (A) consisted of 60% mixed feed, 20% hay and 20% wilted silage, the test ration (B) consisted of 30% mixed feed, 33% sugar beet, 20% hay and 17% wilted silage. A contained 15% crude protein, 32% starch and 2% sugar, B in the same sequence 14, 12 and 24% (amounts in % of DM). The following results were achieved: The functional development of the rumen is largely completed three weeks after weaning. There were no qualitative changes between the 11th and 17th weeks of life. The fermentation of organic matter in the rumen (50...52%) and bacterial protein yield (2.4...2.6 g N per 100 g digestible organic matter) corresponded to that of adult ruminants. The partial replacement of cereals by sugar beet resulted in a significant increase of the molar butyric acid quota to 20.8% (B) in comparison to 13% (A) with the same level of total volatile fatty acids in the rumen, the decrease of the quota of acetic acid to 61.4% (B) in contrast to 73.5% (A) and the reduction of the ruminal NH3 concentration after feeding. The feeding of sugar beets had a positive influence on the passage of starch in the duodenum. The DM-degradation of straw in polyamide bags was also positively influenced. 62.6% (A) and 73.9% (B) of the feed N were degraded in the forestomachs. Per kg DM intake 29.8 g (A) and 28.0 g (B) non-ammonia-N (NAN) were detected at the duodenum. 54% (A) and 64% (B) of NAN consisted of bacteria N. In contrast to adult ruminants at nutrition level 1 (maintenance) a considerable net influx of endogenous N into the rumen was to be observed at a crude protein concentration in the feed of 14 to 15% (in the DM) in both groups. Accordingly, the minimum protein content of the ration (in the DM) should be above 15% in the rearing range studied.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1994

[The effect of the main protein source in rations of ewes and the time of blood collection on the glucose and triacylglycerol levels in blood at the beginning of lactation].

The effect of the protein source of the ration (soybean meal, cottonseed cake, corn gluten and fish meal) and the time (period) of blood sample taking was examined on the content of glucose and triacylglycerols in the blood during the initial lactation period. Thirty-six ewes of the Thessaloniki crossbred type were randomly allocated to 4 groups. The ewes of each group were fed ad libitum with one of the 4 different rations, respectively. From each ewe 4 blood samples were taken in different times. The experimental design was factorial 4x4 with 9 replicates with main factors the main protein source (ration), as well as the time of blood sample taking. The protein source effect on glucose and triacylglycerol concentration in blood was not significant, while that of time of blood sample taking was significant. The interaction "ration" X "time" of sampling for the glucose and TGC concentration was not significant.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1986

Clinical judgment and the rationality of the human sciences.

Rationality in medicine is frequently construed as hypothetico-deductive. This article argues that such a model gives a distorted view of the rational character of an enterprise that makes judgments about individual human well-being. Medicine as a science is a practical human science. Seen as such, its rational orientation is one that applies general knowledge to particular situations. It is argued that such an orientation is not deductive but interpretative. The Aristotelian concept of practical wisdom ('phronesis') is used as a model of the rational orientation of clinical judgment.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed2004

Risk as analysis and risk as feelings: some thoughts about affect, reason, risk, and rationality.

Modern theories in cognitive psychology and neuroscience indicate that there are two fundamental ways in which human beings comprehend risk. The "analytic system" uses algorithms and normative rules, such as probability calculus, formal logic, and risk assessment. It is relatively slow, effortful, and requires conscious control. The "experiential system" is intuitive, fast, mostly automatic, and not very accessible to conscious awareness. The experiential system enabled human beings to survive during their long period of evolution and remains today the most natural and most common way to respond to risk. It relies on images and associations, linked by experience to emotion and affect (a feeling that something is good or bad). This system represents risk as a feeling that tells us whether it is safe to walk down this dark street or drink this strange-smelling water. Proponents of formal risk analysis tend to view affective responses to risk as irrational. Current wisdom disputes this view. The rational and the experiential systems operate in parallel and each seems to depend on the other for guidance. Studies have demonstrated that analytic reasoning cannot be effective unless it is guided by emotion and affect. Rational decision making requires proper integration of both modes of thought. Both systems have their advantages, biases, and limitations. Now that we are beginning to understand the complex interplay between emotion and reason that is essential to rational behavior, the challenge before us is to think creatively about what this means for managing risk. On the one hand, how do we apply reason to temper the strong emotions engendered by some risk events? On the other hand, how do we infuse needed "doses of feeling" into circumstances where lack of experience may otherwise leave us too "coldly rational"? This article addresses these important questions.

Affect↗
PubMed1988

Problems in assessing rationality of drug utilization in less developed countries.

Less developed countries are facing various difficulties in assessing rationality of drug utilization. The problems are essentially related to four major areas; (a) Policies, administration and management, (b) Practice and services, (c) Education and training, (d) Monitoring and research. Drug policies have often failed to recognise the importance of identifying the levels of rationality of the various components of drug utilization. Consequently, neither the need nor the mechanisms to assess rationality were considered. Drug utilization data and records have been poorly developed and maintained, e.g. mal-managed, inaccurate, and without continuity with regard to collection, monitoring and evaluation. Provision and supply of drugs were handled by an unnecessary multiplicity of departments and state offices, none of which keeping complete records and/or information in relation to needs of drugs nor other health care requirements. Deficiencies and shortcomings associated with medical/pharmaceutical practice, services, education and training have as well contributed significantly to the failure of the less developed countries to assess and promote rationality of drug utilization.

Developing Countries↗
PubMed2004

Rational suicide: uncertain moral ground.

BACKGROUND: The ambiguities involving end-of-life issues, such as physician-assisted suicide and voluntary stopping of eating and drinking, have caused a blurring of the definition of rational suicide and have prompted rich dialogue with moral deliberations that seem to be on disparate paths among bioethicists and other health care professionals. With the evolution of advanced medical technology extending life expectancy in older, disabled, and terminally ill people, rational suicide has become a critical issue of debate. AIM: The purpose of this article is to address the ethical positions supporting and opposing rational suicide and to consider whether coherence can be achieved through an ethic of care. FINDINGS: Attitudes towards suicide have been controversial, varying from acceptance to non-acceptance depending on social, political and religious influences. Nursing attitudes are no different from general societal attitudes and, consequently, nurses are treading on uncertain moral ground. CONCLUSION: Nurses who have not reflected on the moral issues involved with rational suicide may be unprepared psychologically and professionally when working with patients who may be contemplating such actions.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed1996

Setting and evaluating the energy content of emergency rations.

This paper examines the setting and evaluation of emergency rations for refugees and displaced people. After defining the purpose for which rations are designed, the variables affecting their quantification are discussed. The debate concerning the use of one as opposed to a range of energy levels for different populations is highlighted in a review of recent proposals for ration levels. It is demonstrated that up to a twofold range occurs if different combinations of the main parameters are used. This has important implications for the large-scale provision of food. The use of one figure for the setting and evaluation of rations for all populations is inappropriate; figures should be set according to specific context and need. To achieve this, a practical two-stage approach is proposed. Stage 1, probably a desk exercise, uses pre-calculated 'look-up' tables which provide energy values for each country. These figures are for immediate use as 'rule-of-thumb' estimates, based on clearly defined parameters. The second stage involves refining the values using improved information on local conditions collected by field assessment.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1972

Effect on young swine of consumption of rations containing corn invaded by Fusarium roseum.

Both male and female pigs given a ration containing corn invaded by Fusarium roseum, in amounts sufficient to provide 500 to 600 ppm of F-2, for the first 64 days of the test and which for another 60 days were given a commercial pig ration were much lower in weight than the controls which were given a commercial pig ration throughout. In relation to the weight of the animals, in the pigs receiving the ration containing F-2, the weight of the uterine horn of the gilts was much greater and the weight of the testes of the males was much less than the weight of the same organs of the controls.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2005

Risk, rationality, and regret: responding to the uncertainty of childhood food anaphylaxis.

Risk and uncertainty are unavoidable in clinical medicine. In the case of childhood food allergy, the dysphoric experience of uncertainty is heightened by the perception of unpredictable danger to young children. Medicine has tended to respond to uncertainty with forms of rational decision making. Rationality cannot, however, resolve uncertainty and provides an insufficient account of risk. This paper compares the medical and parental accounts of two peanut allergic toddlers to highlight the value of emotions in decision making. One emotion in particular, regret, assists in explaining the actions taken to prevent allergic reactions, given the diffuse nature of responsibility for children. In this light, the assumption that doctors make rational judgments while patients have emotion led preferences is a false dichotomy. Reconciling medical and lay accounts requires acknowledgement of the interrelationship between the rational and the emotional, and may lead to more appropriate clinical decision making under conditions of uncertainty.

Anaphylaxis↗
PubMed1997

Development and biomedical testing of military operational rations.

This article gives a brief history of military nutrition research in this century and reviews recent advances made through field testing. Although modern rations are nutritionally complete, ration developers are challenged to improve palatability to promote increased intakes in field training and combat settings. The principal goal for military nutritionists is to identify the optimal macronutrient mix and specific ration components that sustain a soldier's performance in the face of operational stressors such as sleep deprivation, intense physical activity, climatic extremes, and hypobaric hypoxia. Energy expenditures during typical field-training exercises average approximately 4000 kcal/day, whereas energy intakes are usually 3000 kcal/day or less when operational rations are consumed. One way to ameliorate the effects of this shortfall is to provide soldiers with a carbohydrate beverage supplement.

Climate↗