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PubMed1994

A tiered healthcare system for persons in police custody--the use of a forensic nursing service.

In February 1992 the healthcare programme for persons held in police custody within the Melbourne metropolitan area was restructured. This was undertaken as a joint exercise between Police, the Health Department and the Office of Corrections as a response to the need to develop an efficient and cost effective healthcare delivery system. A tiered medical response was instituted, utilising a forensic nurse for the primary medical contact with forensic physicians providing medical consultation and support as necessary. Criteria were developed regarding the delineation of duties appropriate for the forensic nurse and for the forensic physician. The nurses were provided with transport, communication and basic medical supplies enabling a flexible response to requests for medical attention and for the nurse to perform triage, a basic medical assessment and administer appropriate treatment. Over the 15-month period since inception over 3000 consultations have been performed by the forensic nurses. The service has been commended by police, doctors working in the prison system, forensic physicians and community groups. A comprehensive review has demonstrated the efficiency and reliability of such a service. Costs in providing the service have not increased. We conclude that a forensic nursing service is of considerable benefit in complementing a range of services provided by forensic medical officers in a metropolitan setting.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

Assessment and management of individuals under the influence of alcohol in police custody.

Individuals taken into police custody are commonly under the influence of alcohol. Some of these individuals are dependent on alcohol and suffer from withdrawal symptoms. Morbidity and mortality in this group is high, and deaths have been recorded in police custody. There are no specific guidelines on the assessment and management of individuals under the influence of alcohol taken into police custody. This article outlines the clinical features, assessment, investigations and management of these individuals based on a review of the literature.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Drugs and driving: a retrospective study of the analyses of blood and urine specimens submitted to the Lothian and Borders Police Forensic Laboratory.

A comprehensive review of 75 samples of both blood and urine from 72 different drivers suspected of being impaired by drugs in the Lothian and Borders Police Force, Scotland area of jurisdiction, between 1st January 1995 and 2nd May 1997, was undertaken. The police reports, analytical results and criminal conviction records relating to each of the drivers were examined. This provided useful information concerning differences in laboratory procedures and produced a profile of the average drugged driver. The average age of the drivers was 23 years. Only two females were within the sample. Drugs were found in 65 cases (86.7%). Polydrug use was found in seven cases (9.3%). The drugs found, in order of frequency, were benzodiazepines (40%), cannabinoids (24%), alcohol (16%), methadone (12%), dihydrocodeine (9.3%), ecstacy (5.3%), amphetamine (2.7%), volatiles (1.3%) and morphine (1.3%). 90.3% of the drivers had previous convictions for criminal offences and 47.2% had convictions for drugs-related offences. Recommendations concerning police and medical training are discussed with particular reference to the Drug Recognition Expert program.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1988

Hepatitis B markers in Lancashire police officers.

A total of 284 Lancashire police officers each with a minimum of 5 years experience was tested for evidence of hepatitis B infection. None was hepatitis B surface antigen positive (HBsAg). Three were positive for both antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) and HBsAg (anti-HBs). Five were positive for anti-HBc alone. Thus the overall prevalence was 2.8% which is within the range reported for blood donors in the UK. There was no association with working in the drug squad or custody office but there was a higher prevalence in those who had worked in the scene-of-crime's squad. However, the numbers were small, and of this group of 28 officers, 2 of the 3 with detectable hepatitis B markers were positive for anti-HBc alone. Therefore for police officers in mixed rural/urban areas of the UK, routine administration of hepatitis B vaccine is not justified although special consideration should be given to those working in selected groups. Further studies are required to ascertain whether there may be an increased risk for police officers working in conurbations.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Policing stabilizes construction of social niches in primates.

All organisms interact with their environment, and in doing so shape it, modifying resource availability. Termed niche construction, this process has been studied primarily at the ecological level with an emphasis on the consequences of construction across generations. We focus on the behavioural process of construction within a single generation, identifying the role a robustness mechanism--conflict management--has in promoting interactions that build social resource networks or social niches. Using 'knockout' experiments on a large, captive group of pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina), we show that a policing function, performed infrequently by a small subset of individuals, significantly contributes to maintaining stable resource networks in the face of chronic perturbations that arise through conflict. When policing is absent, social niches destabilize, with group members building smaller, less diverse, and less integrated grooming, play, proximity and contact-sitting networks. Instability is quantified in terms of reduced mean degree, increased clustering, reduced reach, and increased assortativity. Policing not only controls conflict, we find it significantly influences the structure of networks that constitute essential social resources in gregarious primate societies. The structure of such networks plays a critical role in infant survivorship, emergence and spread of cooperative behaviour, social learning and cultural traditions.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Drunkenness among police detainees.

All detainees at seven police stations within the Metropolitan Police Area were observed by the authors. Continuous 24-hour cover was provided at each station for periods of 3 weeks. The number of people arrested for offences of drunkenness was noted, as was the apparent degree of drunkenness of all detainees, irrespective of arrest offence. Arrest for drunkenness in London was strongly associated with being white and with having been born in Scotland or Ireland. Within the confines of the station, being drunk was associated with aggressiveness, with the need for medical examination and with delays in implementing interview procedures. The physical condition of many chronically drunk people was very poor and evidence of long-term self neglect was common. Formal cautioning of drunkenness offenders has effectively removed such people from the courts; in the present study only 5% of those arrested for drunkenness alone were subsequently charged. Despite this the police in London must continue to arrest and detain the drunk and incapable for want of suitable alternatives.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Assessment in police custody of individuals under the influence of alcohol with co-morbid psychiatric disorders.

Individuals with a diagnosis of excessive alcohol intake are commonly encountered in police custody. These individuals have a high incidence of co-morbid psychiatric disorders. The Epidemiological Catchment Area (ECA) Study reported that 37% of alcoholics have a co-morbid mental disorder.(1)It is, therefore, important that individuals in custody who have a history of excessive alcohol intake are adequately assessed, in order to identify such co-morbid disorders so that appropriate management is implemented. Assessment of all individuals in police custody should include: To date, little has been written on how such assessments should be carried out in police custody. This paper discusses the presentation of psychiatric disorders in individuals with a history of excessive alcohol intake and suggests how they should be assessed in custody. A subsequent issue of the journal will include an article discussing the management of such individuals.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1986

The effect of recent life events stress, life assets, and temperament pattern on cardiovascular risk factors for Akron City police officers.

Police officers, as a group, experience many occupational demands with physiological and psychological effects that could be harmful to their health. A primary objective of this study was to analyze specific behavioral and physiological risk factors that could lead to hypertension and accelerated coronary artery disease. Three hundred thirty-one male Akron City police officers participated in the study. A group of volunteer males (n = 48) who worked in city clerical jobs were used as controls. Questionnaires were administered in order to measure such behavioral variables as recent life change, life assets, and temperament pattern. Blood chemistry and physiological variables were also measured. The police officers had higher diastolic blood pressure (DBP), norepinephrine (NE) levels, and recent life change unit (LCU) scores than the control group. Increased hostility and depression scores were associated with higher DBP and recent LCU scores and lower life asset unit (LAU) scores. Individuals with higher "dominant" scores and moderate to high recent LCU scores had higher cardiovascular risk factors than those with moderate to high recent LCU scores who were ranked as "subordinate." Rotating shift workers had abnormally elevated NE levels, which, if not controlled, may lead to higher cardiovascular risk. Behavioral intervention programs have been introduced with the goals of reducing stress, increasing life assets, and teaching relaxation techniques.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Posttraumatic stress disorder in the police officer: paradigm of occupational stress.

The police officer is exposed to stress outside the range of usual human experience, which often leads to his demoralization and brutalization, and predisposes him to a posttraumatic stress disorder similar to that found in the Vietnam veteran. With posttraumatic stress disorder comes functional deterioration that can lead to significant psychologic and health problems, not only for the police officer, but also for his family. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the police officer has counterparts in other stressful occupations. Current treatment methods are outlined.

Humans↗
PubMed2004

Queen and worker policing in monogynous and monandrous colonies of a primitively eusocial wasp.

Kin-selection theory predicts that a worker prefers to produce her own sons in a colony with monandry and monogyny because relatedness to her sons (0.5) and nephews (0.375) exceeds that to brothers (0.25). In spite of this prediction, recent studies reveal that workers police each other (mutual-worker egg removal) even in monandrous and monogynous colonies. We conducted field and laboratory studies to evaluate queen and worker policing in queen-right colonies of the primitively eusocial wasp Polistes chinensis antennalis. Genetic studies using microsatellite markers, as well as extensive observations of natural colonies, revealed that both queen and workers removed both queen- and worker-laid eggs in monogynous and monandrous colonies. The queen's eggs survived to hatching more successfully than those of the workers (88.5% versus 1.4%). We discuss the likely factors to explain these worker-policing behaviours.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Alcohol and deaths in police custody.

We examined the involvement of alcohol consumption, chronic alcohol abuse or dependence, the soundness of the police determination of alcohol-related intoxication, and the importance of other drugs in deaths in police custody in a survey of the cases reported to the Chief Coroner of Ontario during the past 10 years. The data suggest no mismanagement by the police. At least 86% of the fatalities were associated with recent alcohol consumption or chronic alcohol abuse/dependence. Use of drugs other than alcohol was far less common. Promoting use and further development of simple tests to estimate blood alcohol concentration, chronic alcohol problems, and suicide risk, before incarceration takes place, may save lives.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Policing sexuality in a modern state hospital.

In 1985 a grand jury was convened by the district attorney to investigate conditions at the Rochester (N.Y.) Psychiatric Center following the center's decision not to notify police of the sodomy of a patient by another patient. The grand jury brought no civil or criminal indictments, but the incident touched off a wave of negative publicity about the hospital and prompted local police and the district attorney to demand that the hospital report any incident of sexual activity involving a mentally incompetent patient. As a result, the hospital instituted a stringent policy requiring extensive investigation and physical examination of patients found having sex. This article discusses legal and clinical issues that were raised by the incident, the impact of public scrutiny on the policing of patient sexuality. The negative aspects of overreporting sexual activity at a state hospital are described.

Hospital Bed Capacity, 500 and over↗
PubMed1997

Gender-based differences in the treatment of young offenders by the police and the children's court in New South Wales, Australia.

It has been consistently reported that young males commit crimes with an average frequency five times greater than their female peers. Most data supporting this view are derived from juvenile court and police statistics. Studies using data derived from self-reported behaviour suggest that the true relative frequency may be closer to 2:1. Police and juvenile justice data for the year 1994-5 in New South Wales, Australia, were analysed in an attempt to determine whether court and police statistics might reflect a form of selection bias, where the likelihood of arrest, trial and/or sentence is a function of gender, rather than frequency and nature of offence. The results suggest that the 5:1 gender ratio reflects a strong component of gender bias in the workings of the juvenile justice system in New South Wales. If suspected of a given crime, young males are more likely to be denied bail and (if found guilty) to be given a harsher sentence than young females suspected (or found guilty) of the same crime. Overall, if found guilty of an offence, boys were four times more likely than girls to receive a custodial sentence. Therefore, boys are selectively denied access to alternate rehabilitation resources which are made available to girls who are in trouble with the law. The juvenile justice system in New South Wales requires careful examination and reform if such apparently deeply entrenched biases are to be eliminated.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

The evolution of the role of the police with special reference to social support and the mental health statutes.

The role of the police at their formation centred around law enforcement (crime detection and apprehension of criminals) and crime prevention in order to maintain the peace. That role has been changing to keep pace with socio-economic developments. Thus, it has expanded to include the provision of social support. However, law enforcement, crime prevention and provision of social support often overlap. Also, though some studies have shown that much police time is spent on non-crime-fighting activities, other studies have found that lower-rank officers in general see their main role as fighting crime. That apart, the police have always had a role to play under the various mental health statutes: referring mentally disordered people to hospital, retaking absconders from mental hospitals, escorting patients from hospital or prison to court and vice versa, which are all tasks classifiable as provision of social support. Because of the complexity of his work today, the policeman may be described as an 'all-purpose public servant'.

Commitment of Persons with Psychiatric Disorders↗
PubMed1999

The management of opiate addicts in police custody.

Many suspects detained at police stations for questioning are under the influence of illicit drugs. This presents a problem, as the reliability of confessions made under the influence of drugs or whilst experiencing withdrawal symptoms may be adversely affected. This paper reviews the current management of opiate addicts in police custody and relevant legislation in the UK to highlight some of the difficulties that arise. It concentrates in particular on the specific problem of defining and assessing fitness for interview in this group and reviews the current evidence of the effect of opiates and opiate withdrawal symptoms on the reliability of testimony. It concludes that any framework for the assessment of fitness for interview must address the question of reliability. More needs to be known about the effects of opiates and opiate withdrawal symptoms on the reliability of testimony in the police interview situation.

England↗
PubMed2006

The mental health needs of people with a learning disability detained in police custody.

Few research studies examine the prevalence or mental health needs of people with a Learning Disability (LD) detained in police custody. This paper describes the population of detainees with an LD who presented to an inner city inter-agency police liaison service during a three-year period. Two forensically trained Community Mental Health Nurses (CMHNs) screened all custody record forms (n=9014) for evidence of a mental health problem or LD. The CMHNs interviewed positively screened detainees (n=1089) using a battery of measures designed to assess mental health status, risk-related behaviour and alcohol or drug abuse. Almost one-in-ten of those interviewed (95/1089) were judged to have a possible or definite LD. Fifty-two per cent were cases on the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) whilst 61% attained 'above threshold' Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) scores. The majority (63%) had a history of causing harm to others while 56 per cent had a history of self-harm. More than half (56%) regularly consumed harmful levels of alcohol while one-in-four (27%) reported abusing drugs. Higher than expected numbers of detainees have a learning disability and most have complex mental health needs. A police liaison service offers a way of identifying people with LD and connecting them with appropriate health and social care agencies.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Homosexuality and police terror in Turkey.

Being a way of sexual living as old as human history, homosexuality occupies an interesting place in the life of the Turkish people of the Republic of Turkey. This has been so since the days of the glorious Ottoman Empire. In the year 1987, instead of investigating the roots of homosexuality, the pressing need has become to present a particular view of homosexuality in Turkey today. To be more specific, there is a need to explain the problems of Turkish homosexuals and suggest certain vital solutions. Our country is constantly endeavoring to become "westernized" and it is claimed that steps are being taken toward that modernization. Despite this fact, homosexuals are confronted with such great problems that it is not difficult to justify those who say that there is no democracy in Turkey. I will try to explain these problems with documentary evidence and without exaggeration. In doing so, I shall make use of new material in my book, published under the title of Homosexuality in Turkey: Yesterday, Today. Beginning in March of 1986, we compiled a list of the attitudes of the police toward gays, involving pressure and cruelty that can be qualified as torture. Despite this situation, instead of being more democratic and humane, in April 1987 the police force employed terror tactics against homosexuals in Istanbul. This was "the straw that broke the camel's back." Soon after this act of oppression, 18 gays, acting on our suggestions, sued the police for the first time. They then submitted a petition to the Attorney-General and later launched a hunger strike in Taksim Square. These represent movements of importance in the political history of Turkey. From now on homosexuals, too, will have the right to speak out in political affairs.

Developing Countries↗
PubMed1995

Work stress and health in a sample of U.S. police.

This study assessed responses to the Occupational Stress Indicator in the Naperville Police Department. This 40% sample of 49 police officers were compared against population norms for employed workers in a range of occupations. Although the police officers perceived less stress from "factors intrinsic to the job", they expressed greater job-related pressure from "organizational structure and climate". They also rated greater the competitiveness and assertiveness in their work behavior.

Adult↗