INFLUENCE OF TYPE OF DISCRIMINATION TRAINING ON GENERALIZATION.
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Discrimination Learning↗
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Improvement in Vernier acuity in adults with amblyopia. Practice makes better.
PURPOSE: To determine the nature and limits of visual improvement through repetitive practice in human adults with naturally occurring amblyopia. METHODS: A key measure the authors used was a psychophysical estimate of Vernier acuity; persons with amblyopia have marked deficits in Vernier acuity that are highly correlated with their loss of Snellen acuity. The experiment consisted of three phases: pretraining measurements of Vernier acuity and a second task (either line-detection thresholds or Snellen acuity) in each eye with the lines at two orientations; a training phase in which observers repetitively trained on the Vernier task at a specific line orientation until each had completed 4000 to 5000 trials; and posttraining measurements (identical to those in the first phase). Two groups of amblyopic observers were tested: novice observers (n = 6), who had no experience in making psychophysical judgments with their amblyopic eyes, and experienced observers (n = 5), who had previous experience in making Vernier judgments with their amblyopic eyes (with the lines at a different orientation) using the signal-detection methodology. RESULTS: The authors found that strong and significant improvement in Vernier acuity occurs in the trained orientation in all observers. Learning was generally strongest at the trained orientation but may partially have been transferred to other orientations (n = 4). Significant learning was transferred partially to the other eye (at the trained orientation) in two observers with anisometropic amblyopia. Improvement in Vernier acuity did not transfer to an untrained detection task. In two observers, the improvement in Vernier acuity was accompanied by a commensurate improvement in Snellen acuity. CONCLUSIONS: Some adults with amblyopia retain a significant degree of neural plasticity. Although several observers (primarily novices) showed evidence of generalized learning, several amblyopic patients showed evidence for improvement that was orientation and task specific. In this latter group of observers, the improvement appeared to reflect alterations that were, at least in part, in early neural processes that were orientation specific and were localized beyond the site of convergence of the two eyes.
Adult↗
An efficient learning algorithm for improving generalization performance of radial basis function neural networks.
This paper presents an efficient recursive learning algorithm for improving generalization performance of radial basis function (RBF) neural networks. The approach combines the rival penalized competitive learning (PRCL) [Xu, L., Kizyzak, A. & Oja, E. (1993). Rival penalized competitive learning for clustering analysis, RBF net and curve detection, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 4, 636-649] and the regularized least squares (RLS) to provide an efficient and powerful procedure for constructing a minimal RBF network that generalizes very well. The RPCL selects the number of hidden units of network and adjusts centers, while the RLS constructs the parsimonious network and estimates the connection weights. In the RLS we derived a simple recursive algorithm, which needs no matrix calculation, and so largely reduces the computational cost. This combined algorithm significantly enhances the generalization performance and the real-time capability of the RBF networks. Simulation results of three different problems demonstrate much better generalization performance of the present algorithm over other existing similar algorithms.
Algorithms↗
Inhibitory stimulus control following errorless discrimination learning.
Three generalization procedures were used to investigate inhibitory stimulus control following discrimination learning with few errors. Three groups of pigeons acquired a discrimination between a green stimulus (the positive stimulus) and a vertical or horizontal line (the negative stimulus) through differential autoshaping followed by multiple schedule presentation of the two stimuli with gradually increasing stimulus durations. Genereralization testing was along a line-tilt continuum. For one group, the test involved a resistance-to-reinforcement procedure in which responses to all line tilts were reinforced on a variable-interval schedule. For a second group, also tested with the resistance-to-reinforcement procedure, the lines were superimposed on the green field that formerly served as the positive stimulus. A third group was tested in extinction with the combined stimuli. Control groups had no discrimination training but responding to green was nondifferentially reinforced. The control subjects responded more to all line tilts during testing than did the comparable experimental subjects, indicating that the negative stimulus had become an inhibitory stimulus. Both resistance-to-reinforcement groups revealed inhibitory gradients around the negative stimulus, but the gradient for the extinction group was relatively flat. These data are consistent with others that modify Terrace's early conclusion concerning the failure of inhibition to develop during errorless training.
Journal Article↗
A general surgeon in Vietnam: lessons learned the hard way.
As a general surgeon in Vietnam, I learned about readiness, preparation, survival, and support the hard way. Tri-Service cooperation training, logistics, personnel utilization, and evacuation will help to provide the best possible care to our troops.
General Surgery↗
Specificity and generalization of visual perceptual learning in humans: an event-related potential study.
To investigate the neural correlates of specificity and generalization of visual perceptual learning, we recorded event-related potentials from human adults when they were trained with a simple visual discrimination task. While reaction times decreased significantly across training sessions, event-related potentials showed larger P2 amplitudes ( approximately 210 ms) over the left occipital/parietal areas and smaller N1 amplitudes ( approximately 140 ms) at the left parietal site with more practice. Similar to reaction times, the training effect on the P2 amplitudes was specific to stimulus orientation. However, the N1 effect was generalized over differently oriented stimuli. These results indicated the complexity of the neural substance underlying perceptual learning, relative to behavioral level.
Adult↗
Learning by distance for general practitioners: students' experiences of Goodfellow Unit diplomas.
AIM: To examine students' reasons for studying and their learning experiences in the Goodfellow Unit postgraduate distance learning diplomas. METHOD: A survey was sent to all students currently enrolled in the Goodfellow Unit diplomas in emergency, sports and geriatric medicine. RESULTS: The response rate was 63%. Students had enrolled to gain more skills on their present job for personal satisfaction or for personal interest. Students reported difficulties in fitting study into already busy lives, but general satisfaction with the learning format of videotaped lecture sessions plus written study guides. They also reported having to develop a different method of learning from their undergraduate study methods. Students predicted a number of ways of improving learning outcomes. CONCLUSION: Distance learning is a viable option for busy general practitioners, as long as it can be self paced, practical and relevant to the work situation.
Attitude of Health Personnel↗
Individual difference as a factor influencing generalization slope and discrimination learning.
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Animals↗
Learning and consciousness during general anesthesia.
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Anesthesia, General↗
Learning and Forgetting in Generalized Brain-state-in-a-box (BSB) Neural Associative Memories.
We propose learning and forgetting techniques for the generalized brain-state-in-a-box (BSB) based associative memories. A generalization of the BSB model allows each neuron to have its own bias and the synaptic weight matrix does not have to be symmetric. A pattern is learned by a memory if its noisy or an incomplete version presented to the memory is mapped back to this pattern. A pattern, previously stored, is forgotten or deleted from the memory if a stimulus that is a perturbed version of the pattern, when presented to the memory, is not mapped back to this pattern. In this paper we propose "on-line" memory storage and deletion methods using an iterative method of computing the pseudo-inverse of a given matrix. The proposed methods allow one to "add" or "delete" a memory pattern by updating, rather than recomputing from scratch, the current synaptic weight matrix in a single step. We first analyze the desired characteristics of neural network associative memories. After that, we review the existing methods for design of neural associative memories. Then we discuss the generalized BSB neural model and its possible function as an associative memory and proffer arguments in support of using such models for neural associative memories. In particular, the generalized BSB type models are easier to analyze, synthesize, and implement than other neural networks. The results obtained are illustrated by numerical examples. Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Journal Article↗
The effect of training on frequency discrimination: generalization to untrained frequencies and to the untrained ear.
While there is growing evidence that frequency discrimination improves with practice, there are, however, limited and inclusive reports regarding the generalization of learning to untrained conditions. The goals of the present study were therefore (1) to measure the effect of multi-session training on difference limen frequency (DLF) thresholds and evaluate the relative contribution of procedural and stimulus learning by comparison to a control (untrained) group; (2) to evaluate the extent of generalization of the trained frequency to two untrained frequencies known to be temporally coded; and (3) to estimate the generalization of the trained frequency to the untrained ear, for both trained and untrained frequencies. Two groups of subjects were included: a trained group (n = 5) and a control group (n = 5). For the trained group, DLF thresholds for 1 kHz (trained frequency) and 1.1 and 2.0 kHz (untrained frequencies) were obtained using a two-interval, two-alternative forced choice paradigm before and after an eight-session training. The control group was tested using the same stimuli only twice, with a 3-week interval between testing. Results showed that (1) multi-session training improves frequency discrimination in normal hearing young adults; (2) adding a control group to the study allowed estimation of the effect of limited exposure to the stimuli and task in naïve listeners and evaluation of the magnitude of procedural learning; (3) learning was generalized across frequencies that are coded by similar mechanisms; (4) generalization of learning occurred in the untrained ear for trained and untrained frequencies. These results have important clinical and theoretical implications regarding the processes underlying perceptual learning and the effectiveness of auditory habilitation strategies.
Acoustic Stimulation↗
On the discriminative control of concurrent responses: the relations among response frequency, latency, and topography in auditory generalization.
Human subjects were used in a study of auditory generalization following multiple-response discrimination training. The relations observed among stimulus intensity, response probability, and response latency were invariant with respect to whether the two vocal responses conditioned were topographically discrete, as in one experiment, or topographically continuous, as in another. The major findings were:1. The probabilities associated with a specific response were maximal over several stimulus values at the extreme ends of the continuum, then dropped sharply at stimuli intermediate to the initial S(D)'s as the probability of the alternative response increased.2. Overall response latency was inversely related to the relative frequency of the two responses at each stimulus value. When the two responses were most nearly equal in probability, latencies were maximal; when one response had close to unit or zero probability, latencies were minimal.3. Analysis of the latencies of the two responses, taken separately, revealed: (a) an increase in latency as the difference between the test stimulus and the initial S(D) increased; (b) a sharp discontinuity in the latency gradient and reversal in trend at intermediate stimulus intensities; and (c) at a given stimulus value, latencies associated with the stochastically dominant response were consistently shorter than those of the nondominant response.4. No changes in response topography (fundamental frequency) were correlated with the characteristic changes in probability and latency during stimulus generalization.
Discrimination Learning↗
How learning one category influences the learning of another: intercategory generalization based on analogy and specific stimulus information.
We investigated the effect of learning one category structure on the learning of a related category structure. Photograph-name combinations, called identifiers, were associated with values of four demographic attributes. Two problems were related by analogous demographic attributes, common identifiers, or both to examine the impact of common identifier, related general characteristics, and the interaction of the two variables in mediating learning transfer from one category structure to another. Problems sharing the same identifier information prompted greater positive transfer than those not sharing the same identifier information. In contrast, analogous defining characteristics in the two problems did not facilitate transfer. We computed correlations between responses to first-problem stimuli and responses to analogous second-problem stimuli for each participant. The analogous characteristics produced a tendency to respond in the same way to corresponding stimuli in the two problems. The results support an alignment between category structures related by analogous defining characteristics, which is facilitated by specific identifier information shared by two category structures.
Generalization, Psychological↗
Graded check lists to assist undergraduate students in self-directed learning and assessment in general and systematic anatomical pathology.
To guide undergraduate medical, dental and health science students undertaking self-directed learning and preparing for examinations in general and systematic pathology, comprehensive graded check lists of selected learning topics have been prepared. Each topic is allocated a grade of 0 (knowledge of the topic not required), 1 (awareness of existence of condition needed, but detailed information not required), 2 (moderately important) or 3 (very important, substantial knowledge required). As students advance through the undergraduate medical course they are provided with replacement lists in which the gradings of many topics have been increased to match requirements for increased knowledge. Over the five years that these check lists have been used, they have received a high level of approval, students finding them increasingly useful as self-directed learning progressively replaces didactic teaching methods. The introduction of the check lists has markedly reduced student inquiries regarding the levels of knowledge required for examinations, and has proved useful to teachers involved in the setting and marking of student assessments. As a result of student pressure, other departments have introduced graded topic lists.
Education, Medical, Undergraduate↗
Using problem-based learning as part of general dental practice vocational training.
The use of problem-based learning as part of a vocational training scheme for vocational dental practitioners is described and evaluated. Problem-based learning is currently viewed as an effective means of delivering medical education and has been adopted as a principal style of education by many undergraduate medical and dental schools around the world.
Education, Dental↗
AN ANALYSIS OF SUMMATED GENERALIZATION.
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Discrimination Learning↗
Medical student appraisal of interactive computer-assisted learning programs embedded in a general pathology course.
Computer-assisted learning programs (CALs) were embedded in a course on general pathology for medical students at the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Students' reactions to the programs were evaluated. Students completed written questionnaires and were interviewed and observed as they used the CALs. Students liked the CALs and felt that they were integrated with other parts of their teaching and aided them in understanding the subject material. Different question styles were variably appreciated. The most useful aspects of the CALs were the interactive parts (questions and answers), summaries, pictures, learning at the individual's own pace, and question practice, especially with MCQs. Students found the CALs an effective learning tool, particularly when linked with other course components as a complement to, rather than a replacement for, other learning methods.
Computer-Assisted Instruction↗
Frequency discrimination training: is there ear symmetry?
While it is well documented that significant improvements in a frequency discrimination task occur following training of normal-hearing adult subjects, less is known about the symmetry between the ears. The objectives of the present study were (1) to compare the first obtained DLF thresholds between left and right ears, (2) to determine whether single-session training would result in similar improvements in those subjects trained in the right ear versus those trained in the left ear, and (3) to evaluate the generalization of learning to the untrained ear and compare its extent between the left and right ears. Two groups of 10 normal-hearing subjects participated in a single-session training. One group of 10 subjects was trained in the left ear and the second group of 10 additional subjects was trained in the right ear. Single-session training consisted of 10 difference limen frequency (DLF) thresholds for 1 kHz using a two-interval, two-alternative forced choice paradigm. Generalization to the untrained ear was tested 24 hours post-training. Our results show that: (1) No significant differences were found in the first obtained DLF thresholds between left and right ears; (2) Similar improvement in DLF thresholds occurred in both ears for single-session training; and (3) Twenty-four hours post-training, learning generalized to the untrained ear with similar generalization to both ears. Future studies are required in order to establish whether this symmetry is maintained with verbal stimuli and/or after multi-session training.
Acoustic Stimulation↗