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PubMed2006

Innate nonhost immunity in barley to different heterologous rust fungi is controlled by sets of resistance genes with different and overlapping specificities.

We developed an evolutionary relevant model system, barley-Puccinia [corrected] rust fungi, to study the inheritance and specificity of plant factors that determine to what extent innate nonhost immunity can be suppressed. A mapping population was developed from a cross between an experimental barley line (SusPtrit) [corrected] with exceptional susceptibility to several heterologous [corrected] (nonhost) rust fungi and regular, immune, cv. Vada [corrected] Seedlings were inoculated with five heterologous [corrected] and two homologous (host) species of rust fungi. Resistance segregated quantitatively for each of the rust fungi. In total, 18 chromosomal regions were implicated. For each rust species, a different set of genes was effective. Of the 18 chromosomal regions, 11 were significantly effective to only one rust species and 7 were effective to more than one rust species, implying genetic linkage or pleiotropy. One resistance (R) gene for hypersensitive resistance to Puccinia hordei-secalini was mapped, suggesting occasional contribution of R genes to nonhost resistance in barley. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) with effects to multiple rust fungi did not tend to be particularly effective to rust species that were phylogenetically related, as determined from their internal transcribed spacer sequence. We suggest that the QTLs described here play a role as specific and quantitative recognition factors that are specifically negated by the rust to successfully suppress innate immunity.

Basidiomycota↗
PubMed2005

New paradigm for the roles of fungi and eosinophils in chronic rhinosinusitis.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Chronic rhinosinusitis represents a challenge with its poorly understood pathophysiology and limited treatment options. Potential roles of fungi and eosinophils in the etiology and pathophysiology of chronic rhinosinusitis are summarized. RECENT FINDINGS: Previously, the fungal role in chronic rhinosinusitis was limited to the rare subgroup, allergic fungal rhinosinusitis. Critical examination of earlier diagnostic criteria for allergic fungal rhinosinusitis reveals limitations. By using updated diagnostic standards and novel sensitive techniques to detect fungi, a higher number of patients can now be diagnosed with fungal rhinosinusitis. A novel non-IgE-mediated immunologic mechanism in chronic rhinosinusitis patients links the predominant eosinophilic inflammation to certain fungi. Overall, these new findings have implications for surgical and medical approaches, including anti-inflammatory and antifungal medications. SUMMARY: Several classification schemes and diagnostic criteria describe chronic rhinosinusitis and make comparisons difficult. Preselection of patient groups within the chronic rhinosinusitis population and the lack of sensitive diagnostic techniques have prevented a full understanding of the syndrome complex of chronic rhinosinusitis. New results suggest a broader role for fungi in the pathophysiology of chronic rhinosinusitis, linking the eosinophilic inflammation to the presence of certain molds in the nasal and paranasal cavities. Although fungi are commonly found in nearly everyone, only chronic rhinosinusitis patients respond to them with an eosinophilic inflammation. These findings support a shift in the etiologic understanding of chronic rhinosinusitis away from a bacteriologic infectious pathogenesis to a fungal-driven inflammatory pathophysiology. Herein, the authors review earlier studies and describe an updated view on an old paradigm.

Chronic Disease↗
PubMed2000

Identification and characterization of anaerobic gut fungi using molecular methodologies based on ribosomal ITS1 and 185 rRNA.

The gut fungi are an unusual group of zoosporic fungi occupying a unique ecological niche, the anaerobic environment of the rumen. They exhibit two basic forms, with nuclear migration throughout the hyphal mass for polycentric species and with concentration of nuclear material in a zoosporangium for monocentric species. Differentiation between isolates of these fungi is difficult using conventional techniques. In this study, DNA-based methodologies were used to examine the relationships within and between two genera of monocentric gut fungi gathered from various geographical locations and host animals. The ribosomal ITS1 sequence from 16 mono- and 4 polycentric isolates was PCR-amplified and sequenced; the sequences obtained were aligned with published sequences and phylogenetic analyses were performed. These analyses clearly differentiate between the two genera and reflect the previously published physiological conclusions that Neocallimastix spp. constitute a more closely related genus than the relatively divergent genus Piromyces. The analyses place two type species N. frontalis and N. hurleyensis together but, contrary to a recent suggestion in the literature, place them apart from the other agreed species N. patriciarum. In situ hybridization and slot-blotting were investigated as potential methods for detection of and differentiation between monocentric gut fungi. DNA slot-blot analysis using ribosomal sequences is able to differentiate between gut fungal genera and thus has considerable potential for use in ecological studies of these organisms.

Anaerobiosis↗
PubMed2006

Interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria and their potential for stimulating plant growth.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and bacteria can interact synergistically to stimulate plant growth through a range of mechanisms that include improved nutrient acquisition and inhibition of fungal plant pathogens. These interactions may be of crucial importance within sustainable, low-input agricultural cropping systems that rely on biological processes rather than agrochemicals to maintain soil fertility and plant health. Although there are many studies concerning interactions between AM fungi and bacteria, the underlying mechanisms behind these associations are in general not very well understood, and their functional properties still require further experimental confirmation. Future mycorrhizal research should therefore strive towards an improved understanding of the functional mechanisms behind such microbial interactions, so that optimized combinations of microorganisms can be applied as effective inoculants within sustainable crop production systems. In this context, the present article seeks to review and discuss the current knowledge concerning interactions between AM fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, the physical interactions between AM fungi and bacteria, enhancement of phosphorus and nitrogen bioavailability through such interactions, and finally the associations between AM fungi and their bacterial endosymbionts. Overall, this review summarizes what is known to date within the present field, and attempts to identify promising lines of future research.

Bacterial Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed2006

Effect of bioaugmentation of activated sludge with white-rot fungi on olive mill wastewater detoxification.

AIMS: To test the potential use of Phanerochaete chrysosporium and other white-rot fungi to detoxify olive mill wastewaters (OMW) in the presence of a complex activated sludge. To combine the aerobic with anaerobic treatment to optimize the conversion of OMW in biogas. METHODS AND RESULTS: A 25-l air lift reactor was used to pretreat OMW by white-rot fungi. Detoxification of the OMW was monitored by size exclusion HPLC analysis, chemical oxygen demand (COD)/biological oxygen demand (BOD(5)) ratio evolution, and bioluminescence toxicity test. Anaerobic treatment of OMW was performed in a 12-l anaerobic filter reactor. Efficiency of the treatment was evaluated by organic matter removal, and biogas production. By comparison with the pretreatment by activated sludge only, the bioaugmentation with Phanerochaete chrysosporium or Trametes versicolor led to high removal of organic matter, decreased the COD/BOD(5) ratio and the toxicity. The subsequent anaerobic digestion of the OMW pretreated with activated sludge-white-rot fungi showed higher biomethanization yields than that pretreated with activated sludge only. Higher loading rates (7 g COD l(-1) day(-1)) were reached without any acidification or inhibition of biomethanization. CONCLUSIONS: The use of white-rot fungi, even in the presence of complex biological consortia to detoxify OMW, proved to be possible and made the anaerobic digestion of OMW for methane production feasible. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The use of fungi for OMW reuse and energy production could be adapted to industrial applications.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗
PubMed2007

Metal-chelating compounds produced by ectomycorrhizal fungi collected from pine plantations.

AIMS: To investigate the in vitro production of metal-chelating compounds by ectomycorrhizal fungi collected from pine plantations in southern Chile. METHODS AND RESULTS: Scleroderma verrucosum, Suillus luteus and two isolates of Rhizopogon luteolus were grown in solid and liquid modified Melin-Norkans (MMN) media with and without iron addition and the production of iron-chelating compounds was determined by Chrome Azurol S (CAS) assay. The presence of hydroxamate and catecholate-type compounds and organic acids was also investigated in liquid medium. All isolates produced iron-chelating compounds as detected by CAS assay, and catecholates, hydroxamates as well as oxalic, citric and succinic acids were also detected in all fungal cultures. Scleroderma verrucosum produced the greatest amounts of catecholates and hydroxamates whereas the highest amounts of organic acids were detected in S. luteus. Nevertheless, the highest catecholate, hydroxamate and organic acid concentrations did not correlate with the highest CAS reaction which was observed in R. luteolus (Yum isolate). CONCLUSIONS: Ectomycorrhizal fungi produced a variety of metal-chelating compounds when grown in liquid MMN medium. However, the addition of iron to all fungi cultures reduced the CAS reaction, hydroxamate and organic acid concentrations. Catecholate production was affected differently by iron, depending on the fungal isolate. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The ectomycorrhizal fungi described in this study have never been reported to produce metal-chelating compound production. Moreover, apart from some wood-rotting fungi, this is the first evidence of the presence of catecholates in R. luteolus, S. luteus and S. verrucosum cultures.

Basidiomycota↗
PubMed1989

Degradation and utilization of cellulose and straw by three different anaerobic fungi from the ovine rumen.

Three different ruminal fungi, a Neocallimastix sp. (strain LM-1), a Piromonas sp. (strain SM-1), and a Sphaeromonas sp. (strain NM-1), were grown anaerobically in liquid media which contained a suspension of either 1% (wt/vol) purified cellulose or finely milled wheat straw as the source of fermentable carbon. Fungal biomass was estimated by using cell wall chitin or cellular protein in cellulose cultures and chitin in straw cultures. Both strains LM-1 and SM-1 degraded cellulose with a concomitant increase in fungal biomass. Maximum growth of both fungi occurred after incubation for 4 days, and the final yield of protein was the same for both fungi. Cellulose degradation continued after growth ceased. Strain NM-1 failed to grow in the cellulose medium. All three anaerobic fungi grew in the straw-containing medium, and loss of dry weight from the cultures indicated degradation of straw to various degrees (LM-1 greater than SM-1 greater than NM-1). The total fiber component and the cellulose component of the straw were degraded in similar proportions, but the lignin component remained undegraded by any of the fungi. Maximum growth yield on straw occurred after 4 days for strain LM-1 and after 5 days for strains SM-1 and NM-1. The calculated yield of cellular protein for strain LM-1 was twice that of both strains SM-1 and NM-1. The cellular protein yield of strain SM-1 was the same in both cellulose and straw cultures. In contrast to cellulose, straw degradation ceased after the end of the growth phase.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Anaerobiosis↗
PubMed1991

Metabolic status of bacteria and fungi in the rhizosphere of ponderosa pine seedlings.

We determined the quantity and metabolic status of bacteria and fungi in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soil from microcosms containing ponderosa pine seedlings. Rhizosphere soil was sampled adjacent to coarse, fine, or young roots. The biovolume and metabolic status of bacterial and fungal cells was determined microscopically and converted to total and active biomass values. Cells were considered active if they possessed the ability to reduce the artificial electron acceptor 2-(4-iodophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyltetrazolium chloride (INT) to visible intracellular deposits of INT formazan. A colorimetric assay of INT formazan production was also used to assess dehydrogenase activity. INT-active microorganisms made up 44 to 55% of the microbial biomass in the soils studied. The proportion of fungal biomass that exhibited INT-reducing activity (40 to 50%) was higher than previous estimates of the active proportion of soil fungi determined by using fluorescein diacetate. Comparison between soils from different root zones revealed that the highest total and INT-active fungal biomass was adjacent to fine mycorrhizal roots, whereas the highest total and active bacterial biomass was adjacent to the young growing root tips. These observations suggest that fungi are enhanced adjacent to the fine roots compared with the nonrhizosphere soil, whereas bacteria are more responsive than fungi to labile carbon inputs in the young root zone. Colorimetric dehydrogenase assays detected gross differences between bulk and rhizosphere soil activity but were unable to detect more subtle differences due to root types. Determination of total and INT-active biomass has increased our understanding of the role of spatial compartmentalization of bacteria and fungi in rhizosphere carbon flow.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

Isolation of laccase gene-specific sequences from white rot and brown rot fungi by PCR.

Degenerate primers corresponding to the consensus sequences of the copper-binding regions in the N-terminal domains of known basidiomycete laccases were used to isolate laccase gene-specific sequences from strains representing nine genera of wood rot fungi. All except three gave the expected PCR product of about 200 bp. Computer searches of the databases identified the sequence of each of the PCR products analyzed as a laccase gene sequence, suggesting the specificity of the primers. PCR products of the white rot fungi Ganoderma lucidum, Phlebia brevispora, and Trametes versicolor showed 65 to 74% nucleotide sequence similarity to each other; the similarity in deduced amino acid sequences was 83 to 91%. The PCR products of Lentinula edodes and Lentinus tigrinus, on the other hand, showed relatively low nucleotide and amino acid similarities (58 to 64 and 62 to 81%, respectively); however, these similarities were still much higher than when compared with the corresponding regions in the laccases of the ascomycete fungi Aspergillus nidulans and Neurospora crassa. A few of the white rot fungi, as well as Gloeophyllum trabeum, a brown rot fungus, gave a 144-bp PCR fragment which had a nucleotide sequence similarity of 60 to 71%. Demonstration of laccase activity in G. trabeum and several other brown rot fungi was of particular interest because these organisms were not previously shown to produce laccases.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1997

Identification and retting efficiencies of fungi isolated from dew-retted flax in the United States and europe.

Seven strains of filamentous fungi and one yeast were isolated from flax that was dew retted in the United States. These filamentous fungi were subcultured to purity and identified, and six appear not to have been reported earlier as isolates from dew-retted flax. Five of the purified U.S. strains, two fungi isolated from flax that was dew retted in Europe, and a laboratory culture of Aspergillus sojae were tested for their ability to ret flax stems. The monocultures were evaluated for the degree of retting, fiber strength, dry weight loss, and tactile response (i.e., feel of softness) as reflected in the retted fiber. Structural modifications of representative samples of the retted flax were assessed by scanning electron microscopy. All of the filamentous fungi were able to carry out some retting, whereas the isolated yeast could not. All organisms produced pectinases when they were cultivated in shake flasks on ball-milled flax as the sole carbon source. Some fungi also produced cellulases, mannanases, and xylanases. Rhizomucor pusillus and Fusarium lateritium were noteworthy as retting organisms by their high level of pectinase activity, ability to attack noncellulosic cell types without attacking cellulose, capacity to penetrate the cuticular surface of the stem, and efficient fiber release from the core. The results indicated that these organisms deserve further study as potential organisms for retting of bast fibers in industrial applications.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Competitive Interactions among Symbiotic Fungi of the Southern Pine Beetle.

The southern pine beetle, a damaging pest of conifers, is intimately linked to three symbiotic fungi. Two fungi, Ceratocystiopsis ranaculosus and Entomocorticium sp. A, are transported within specialized structures (mycangia) in the beetle exoskeleton and are mutualists of the beetle. A third fungus, Ophiostoma minus, is transported externally on the beetle exoskeleton (phoretically) and is an antagonist of the beetle. This study examined competitive interactions among these three fungi. The results of de Wit replacement series and primary and secondary resource capture assays with these fungi provide strong evidence for differential competition between the phoretic and mycangial fungi. O. minus was the most able to capture both uncolonized and colonized resources. Entomocorticium sp. A and C. ranaculosus, although equal to one another in competitive abilities, differed in their ability to compete with O. minus. Entomocorticium sp. A was able to maintain space free of O. minus to a much greater degree than was C. ranaculosus. The outcome of such competitive interactions may have significant impacts on the biology of this ecologically and economically important beetle.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1998

Release of dimethylsulfide from dimethylsulfoniopropionate by plant-associated salt marsh fungi.

The range of types of microbes with dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) lyase capability (enzymatic release of dimethylsulfide [DMS] from DMSP) has recently been expanded from bacteria and eukaryotic algae to include fungi (a species of the genus Fusarium [M. K. Bacic and D. C. Yoch, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:106-111, 1998]). Fungi (especially ascomycetes) are the predominant decomposers of shoots of smooth cordgrass, the principal grass of Atlantic salt marshes of the United States. Since the high rates of release of DMS from smooth cordgrass marshes have a temporal peak that coincides with peak shoot death, we hypothesized that cordgrass fungi were involved in this DMS release. We tested seven species of the known smooth cordgrass ascomycetes and discovered that six of them exhibited DMSP lyase activity. We also tested two species of ascomycetes from other DMSP-containing plants, and both were DMSP lyase competent. For comparison, we tested 11 species of ascomycetes and mitosporic fungi from halophytes that do not contain DMSP; of these 11, only 3 were positive for DMSP lyase. A third group tested, marine oomycotes (four species of the genera Halophytophthora and Pythium, mostly from mangroves), showed no DMSP lyase activity. Two of the strains of fungi found to be positive for DMSP lyase also exhibited uptake of DMS, an apparently rare combination of capabilities. In conclusion, a strong correlation exists between a fungal decomposer's ability to catabolize DMSP via the DMSP lyase pathway and the host plant's production of DMSP as a secondary product.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Symbiotic fungi produce laccases potentially involved in phenol degradation in fungus combs of fungus-growing termites in Thailand.

Fungus-growing termites efficiently decompose plant litter through their symbiotic relationship with basidiomycete fungi of the genus Termitomyces. Here, we investigated phenol-oxidizing enzymes in symbiotic fungi and fungus combs (a substrate used to cultivate symbiotic fungi) from termites belonging to the genera Macrotermes, Odontotermes, and Microtermes in Thailand, because these enzymes are potentially involved in the degradation of phenolic compounds during fungus comb aging. Laccase activity was detected in all the fungus combs examined as well as in the culture supernatants of isolated symbiotic fungi. Conversely, no peroxidase activity was detected in any of the fungus combs or the symbiotic fungal cultures. The laccase cDNA fragments were amplified directly from RNA extracted from fungus combs of five termite species and a fungal isolate using degenerate primers targeting conserved copper binding domains of basidiomycete laccases, resulting in a total of 13 putative laccase cDNA sequences being identified. The full-length sequences of the laccase cDNA and the corresponding gene, lcc1-2, were identified from the fungus comb of Macrotermes gilvus and a Termitomyces strain isolated from the same fungus comb, respectively. Partial purification of laccase from the fungus comb showed that the lcc1-2 gene product was a dominant laccase in the fungus comb. These findings indicate that the symbiotic fungus secretes laccase to the fungus comb. In addition to laccase, we report novel genes that showed a significant similarity with fungal laccases, but the gene product lacked laccase activity. Interestingly, these genes were highly expressed in symbiotic fungi of all the termite hosts examined.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2001

Analysis of growth characteristics of filamentous fungi in different nutrient media.

A microbroth kinetic model based on turbidity measurements was developed in order to analyze the growth characteristics of three species of filamentous fungi (Rhizopus microsporus, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Scedosporium prolificans) characterized by different growth rates in five nutrient media (antibiotic medium 3, yeast nitrogen base medium, Sabouraud broth, RPMI 1640 alone, and RPMI 1640 with 2% glucose). In general, five distinct phases in the growth of filamentous fungi could be distinguished, namely, the lag phase, the first transition period, the log phase, the second transition period, and the stationary phase. The growth curves were smooth and were characterized by the presence of long transition periods. Among the different growth phases distinguished, the smallest variability in growth rates among the strains of each species was found during the log phase in all nutrient media. The different growth phases of filamentous fungi were barely distinguishable in RPMI 1640, in which the poorest growth was observed for all fungi even when the medium was supplemented with 2% glucose. R. microsporus and A. fumigatus grew better in Sabouraud and yeast nitrogen base medium than in RPMI 1640, with growth rates three to four times higher. None of the media provided optimal growth of S. prolificans. The germination of Rhizopus spores and Aspergillus and Scedosporium conidia commenced after 2 and 5 h of incubation, respectively. The elongation rates ranged from 39.6 to 26.7, 25.4 to 20.2, and 16.9 to 9.9 microm/h for Rhizopus, Aspergillus, and Scedoporium hyphae, respectively. The germination of conidia and spores and the elongation rates of hyphae were enhanced in antibiotic medium 3 and delayed in yeast nitrogen base medium. In conclusion, the growth curves provide a useful tool to gain insight into the growth characteristics of filamentous fungi in different nutrient media and may help to optimize the methodology for antifungal susceptibility testing.

Aspergillus fumigatus↗
PubMed2002

The smut fungi of the world. A survey.

After a short historical review, our current knowledge about the smut fungi of the world, their number, classification, occurrence on host plant groups and their relationship to other groups of fungi are presented. Surprising results of the new classification of smut fungi are shown. The estimated number of existing species, expected results and trends in smut fungus taxonomy, the necessity and modalities of the conservation of smut fungi and the preparation of an illustrated world monograph of smut fungi are discussed.

Basidiomycota↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Isolation of fungi from nature in the region of Botucatu, state of São Paulo, Brazil, an endemic area of paracoccidioidomycosis.

In an attempt to isolate Paracoccidioides brasiliensis from nature 887 samples of soil from Botucatu, SP, Brazil, were collected cultured in brain heart infusion agar supplemented with dextrose, in potato dextrose agar and in yeast extract starch dextrose agar, all with antibiotics, at 25 degrees and 37 degrees C. Five thermo-dependent dimorphic fungi morphologically resembling P. brasiliensis were isolated; two from armadillo holes; further studies of the biology, antigenicity and genetic features of the five dimorphic fungi are necessary to clarify their taxonomy and their possible relation to P. brasiliensis. In addition, 98 dematiaceous fungi and 581 different species of Aspergillus spp. were also isolated. Our findings emphasize that armadillos and their environment are associated with thermo-dimorphic fungi and confirm the ubiquity of pathogenic dematiaceous fungi and Aspergillus spp.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Carbon allocation to ectomycorrhizal fungi correlates with belowground allocation in culture studies.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi form symbioses with most temperate and boreal tree species, but difficulties in measuring carbon allocation to these symbionts have prevented the assessment of their importance in forest ecosystems. Here, I surveyed allocation patterns in 14 culture studies and five field studies of ectomycorrhizal plants. In culture studies, allocation to ectomycorrhizal fungi (NPPf) was linearly related to total belowground net primary production (NPPb) by the equation NPPf = 41.5% x NPPb - 11.3% (r2 = 0.55, P < 0.001) and ranged from 1% to 21% of total net primary production. As a percentage of NPP, allocation to ectomycorrhizal fungi was highest at lowest plant growth rates and lowest nutrient availabilities. Because total belowground allocation can be estimated using carbon balance techniques, these relationships should allow ecologists to incorporate mycorrhizal fungi into existing ecosystem models. In field studies, allocation to ectomycorrhizal fungi ranged from 0% to 22% of total allocation, but wide differences in measurement techniques made intercomparisons difficult. Techniques such as fungal in-growth cores, root branching-order studies, and isotopic analyses could refine our estimates of turnover rates of fine roots, mycorrhizae, and extraradical hyphae. Together with ecosystem modeling, such techniques could soon provide good estimates of the relative importance of root vs. fungal allocation in belowground carbon budgets.

Carbon↗
PubMed1999

[Fungi and atopic dermatitis].

Attention has recently been centered on fungi as aggravating factors of atopic dermatitis (AD) due to the frequent detection of IgE antibodies to fungi in patients with severe AD and to positive response of some cases of AD to antifungal therapy. Malassezia sp.: In AD patients with prominent symptoms in the head and neck, areas prone to colonization by Malassezia, the titers of specific anti-Malassezia IgE antibodies are high, which positively correlate with the total IgE value and the severity of AD. The patch test against Malassezia antigens is positive. The rate of isolation of Malassezia from the skin of AD patients is higher than that from the skin of healthy control subjects. Candida sp.: In patients with severe AD, the rate of positive skin prick tests for Candida is high, and a correlation exists between positive skin prick test results and the presence of Candida albicans in nasopharynx. However, the reactivity to Candida antigens in the patch tests is reduced, and a negative correlation is seen. There is no difference between the isolation rate of C. albicans from patients with adult-type AD and normal controls. However, AD patients give a significantly greater number of separate colonies. The range of efficacy rate of antifungal therapy of AD is reported to be 50-65 %. The efficacy rate of our own trial falls within this range. Following treatment, the rate of isolation of fungi decrease significantly, and the titers of specific antifungal IgE antibodies are not statistically significant. The clearance of fungi from the tissue following antifungal therapy probably results in the suppression of direct or indirect inflammatory reaction caused by the fungi. We therefore consider antifungal therapy as one of the second-line therapies to be administered in AD cases resistant to conventional basic therapy.

Adult↗