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PubMed2004

Learned fear of "unseen" faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear.

This study compared fear learning acquired through direct experience (Pavlovian conditioning) and fear learning acquired without direct experience via either observation or verbal instruction. We examined whether these three types of learning yielded differential responses to conditioned stimuli (CS+) that were presented unmasked (available to explicit awareness) or masked (not available to explicit awareness). In the Pavlovian group, the CS+ was paired with a mild shock, whereas the observational-learning group learned through observing the emotional expression of a confederate receiving shocks paired with the CS+. The instructed-learning group was told that the CS+ predicted a shock. The three groups demonstrated similar levels of learning as measured by the skin conductance response to unmasked stimuli. As in previous studies, participants also displayed a significant learning response to masked stimuli following Pavlovian conditioning. However, whereas the observational-learning group also showed this effect, the instructed-learning group did not.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2005

Does priming with awareness reflect explicit contamination? An approach with a response-time measure in word-stem completion.

The present experiment investigates the involvement of awareness in functional dissociations between explicit and implicit tests. In the explicit condition, participants attempted to recall lexically or semantically studied words using word stems. In the implicit condition, they were instructed to complete each stem with the first word which came to mind. Subjective awareness was subsequently measured on an item-by-item basis. As voluntary retrieval strategies are known to be time consuming, the time taken to complete each stem was recorded. In the explicit task, semantically studied words were associated with higher levels of recall and faster response times than lexically studied words. By contrast, in the implicit task, these effects failed to reach significance, although deep encoding made the contents of memory more accessible to awareness. As expected, performance was slower in the explicit than in the implicit task, but in the latter condition, times to produce old words with and without awareness were comparable, and both of these responses were produced more quickly than control words. This finding suggests that although participants may become aware in implicit paradigms, they do not adopt voluntary retrieval strategies.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Generating interactive molecular documentaries using a library of graphical actions.

Paper-based publishing of scientific articles limits the types of presentations that can be used. The emergence of electronic publishing has created opportunities to increase the range of formats available for conveying scientific content. We introduce the Graphical Explanation Markup Language, GEML, implemented as an XML format for defining molecular documentaries which exploit the interactive capabilities of electronic publishing. GEML builds upon existing molecular structure definitions such as the Protein Data Bank (PDB) standard file format. GEML provides a library of gestures (or actions) commonly used for structural explanations, and is extensible. XML allows us to separate explicit statements about how to highlight a molecular structure from the implementation of these instructions. We also present GEIS (Generator of Explanatory Interactive Systems), a program that takes as input a GEML documentary definition file and produces all the files necessary for an interactive, web-based molecular documentary. To demonstrate GEML and GEIS, we constructed a documentary capturing the difficult 3D notions expressed in two selected published reports about human topoisomerase I. We have created a prototype Java application, GEMLBuilder, as an editor of GEML files.

Computer Graphics↗

PubMed1994

[Evaluation of computer-assisted instruction methods. Apropos of 26 comparative studies published between 1989 and 1992].

Information and knowledge processing technologies have contributed to the development of Computer assisted instruction (CAI) applications. Multimedia technologies will increase the possibilities of these programmes in the future. However the evaluation of the software as well as the other technologies is necessary. The authors have tried to quantify the contributions of CAI analysing the literature referenced in MEDLINE from 1989 to 1992. On the 470 papers indexed with the key-word "Computer Assisted Instruction", 56 studies take evaluation into account. Only 26, that is 5.5%, presented a clear and explicit methodology of evaluation. On the 26 studies, 16 were considered with positive result and among these, 6 presented a statistical significance. The conditions and the criteria of the evaluation studies do not permit a meta analysis. Is is necessary to develop standardized evaluation criteria to estimate the quantitative and qualitative impact of the CAI technics on the educational process and their own pedagogical contribution.

Computer-Assisted Instruction↗

PubMed1995

Skill-related task structures, explicitness, and accountability: relationships with student achievement.

The purpose of this study was to determine relationships of task structures, explicitness, and accountability with student achievement in physical education. The subjects were teachers of 10 physical education classes and their 202 students. Each class participated in instruction that was videotaped, and the students were pre- and posttested. Videotapes were coded to collect data on each skill-related task including the task presentation time, skill being taught, explicitness of the task presentation, primary and secondary accountability systems used, level of student participation, and total task time. Among the many results, for the volleyball forearm pass, significant relationships were found for the total number of tasks and time spent in tasks when expectations included outcome, situation, and criteria-product. For the volleyball underhand serve, significant relationships were found for the total number of tasks and time spent in tasks when accountability included teacher feedback with follow-up and monitoring of off-task behavior.

Achievement↗

PubMed2003

Effects of visual information and task constraints on intersegmental coordination in playground swinging.

The authors investigated how and to what extent visual information and associated task constraints are negotiated in the coordinative structure of playground swinging. Participants (N = 20) were invited to pump a swing from rest to a prescribed maximal amplitude under 4 conditions: normal vision, no vision, and 2 visual conditions involving explicit phasing constraints. In the latter conditions, participants were presented with a flow pattern consisting of a periodically expanding and contracting optical structure. They were instructed to phase the swing motion so that the forward turning point coincided with either the maximal size (enhanced optical flow) or the minimal size (reduced optical flow) of the presented flow pattern. Removal of visual information clearly influenced the swinging behavior, in that intersegmental coordination became more stereotyped, reflecting a general stiffening of the swinger. The conditions involving explicit phasing requirements also affected the coordination, but in an opposite way: The coordination became less stereotyped. The two phasing instructions had differential effects: The intersegmental coordination deviated more from normal swinging (i.e., without phasing constraints) when optical flow was enhanced than when it was reduced. Collectively, those findings show that visual information plays a formative role in the coordinative structure of swinging, in that variations of visual information and task constraints were accompanied by subtle yet noticeable changes in intersegmental coordination.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Can the promise of reward increase creativity?

Two experiments, involving 436 preadolescent schoolchildren, investigated how the explicitness of promised reward affects creativity. In the first study, the nonspecific promise of reward increased the creativity of picture drawing if children had previously received divergent-thinking training (generating novel uses for physical objects). In the second study, promised reward increased the creativity of children's drawings if current task instructions clarified the necessity of creative performance. Promised reward evidently increases creativity if there is currently, or was previously, an explicit positive relationship between creativity and reward.

Child↗

PubMed1976

Brain architecture and mechanisms that underlie language: an information-processing analysis.

A neural network model for naming visual objects and their attributes, and understanding certain simple types of sentences has been presented. The model is based on neural processes rather than linguistic or symbolic constructs. The following are the major structural features of the model: 1. Memory stores are associative networks that perform an analysis of their inputs in real time. This analysis converts the input pattern into a "recognition pattern" that depends on the specific stored information and its location in the store. 2. The naming store is an analyzer network that converts the sensory encoding of a sentence into a "sentence pattern". The sentence pattern is obtained by averaging the recognition signals from several memory locations in the naming store. Because of the organization of words in the naming store, sentence patterns are an encoding of the structure of the sentences. 3. The sentence store is an associative memory store that recognizes sentence patterns and associates with each one an "instruction sequence" or "program" that specifies how the system should respond to the sentence. It is the enabling of access to this "program" that constitutes "understanding." Sentences are understood in real time, without the explicit grammatical analysis that is usual in sentence-understanding systems. Understanding a sentence involves two functionally distinct processes: (1) associating with its sentence pattern an instruction sequence that specifices what to do in order to generate an appropriate response to the sentence matching that pattern: for example, to look in the visual field for an object, determine its location, and so on, and (2) analysis of the tokens in the sentence that indicate specific attributes or entities to look for or determine.

Association↗

PubMed1992

Improving the autopsy rate at a university hospital.

PURPOSE: Although the autopsy is widely recognized as an invaluable tool for medical education, as well as the gold standard by which the accuracy of diagnoses are measured, there has been a steady decline in the autopsy rate over the last 20 years. At Westchester County Medical Center, a university hospital of New York Medical College, we observed an alarming drop in our autopsy rate. We realized that the methods used to obtain consent from the family of the deceased were haphazard and often left to the junior houseofficer available. We hypothesized that we could increase the autopsy rate by explicitly involving senior housestaff in the task of obtaining autopsy consent after giving them formal instruction in the technique of asking for consent and by having them record information regarding their encounters with families. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Data concerning the frequency of autopsies at Westchester County Medical Center were collected for a 3-month period in 1990. A corresponding period in 1991 was designated the study period during which our intervention was initiated. All medical examiner's cases were excluded for both periods since autopsy consent for these patients is not at the discretion of the family. At the start of the study period and each month thereafter, formal instruction regarding obtaining permission for autopsy was given to all senior residents assigned to direct patient care duty. The senior resident was required to complete a data form regarding autopsy request on each patient who died. RESULTS: Nine autopsies among 89 deaths (10%) were obtained during the study period in 1990, compared with 31 autopsies among 116 deaths (27%) in 1991 (p less than 0.01). In 1991, autopsies were more likely to be obtained when death was unexpected (p less than 0.05). CONCLUSION: The institution of a formal program to educate and involve the senior resident staff in obtaining autopsy consent can significantly improve the autopsy rate at a university hospital.

Autopsy↗

PubMed1992

Affective valence and memory in depression: dissociation of recall and fragment completion.

Depressed (n = 16) and nondepressed (n = 16) subjects' memory for affectively valenced words was assessed by an explicit test (free recall) and an implicit test (word fragment completion). Under free-recall instructions, depressed subjects recalled significantly more negatively valenced than positively valenced words, whereas the opposite pattern was observed in nondepressed control subjects. These results replicate those previously reported in the literature. The differential effect of word valence was absent, however, when memory was tested implicitly: Depressed and nondepressed subjects exhibited equivalent priming of positive and negative words. These data are discussed in terms of Williams, Watts, MacLeod, and Mathews's (1988) model of depression.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Impaired implicit memory for gist information in amnesia.

In 2 experiments using a converging associates paradigm, the authors evaluated implicit memory for gist information in amnesic patients. In Experiment 1, participants saw multiple sets of associates, each converging on a nonpresented theme word, and were then tested using an implicit word stem completion test and an explicit cued recall test. Amnesic patients showed intact implicit and impaired explicit memory for studied words, but memory for nonpresented lures was impaired, regardless of retrieval instructions. To evaluate whether impaired implicit memory for lures was due to accelerated forgetting of gist information, short study lists were used in Experiment 2, each consisting of a single set of associates. Amnesics' implicit memory for lures was again impaired. These results point to an inability to encode robust gist representations as the cause of impaired gist memory in amnesia.

Aged↗

PubMed2001

Frontopolar and anterior temporal cortex activation in a moral judgment task: preliminary functional MRI results in normal subjects.

OBJECTIVE: To study the brain areas which are activated when normal subjects make moral judgments. METHOD: Ten normal adults underwent BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during the auditory presentation of sentences that they were instructed to silently judge as either "right" or "wrong". Half of the sentences had an explicit moral content ("We break the law when necessary"), the other half comprised factual statements devoid of moral connotation ("Stones are made of water"). After scanning, each subject rated the moral content, emotional valence, and judgment difficulty of each sentence on Likert-like scales. To exclude the effect of emotion on the activation results, individual responses were hemodynamically modeled for event-related fMRI analysis. The general linear model was used to evaluate the brain areas activated by moral judgment. RESULTS: Regions activated during moral judgment included the frontopolar cortex (FPC), medial frontal gyrus, right anterior temporal cortex, lenticular nucleus, and cerebellum. Activation of FPC and medial frontal gyrus (BA 10/46 and 9) were largely independent of emotional experience and represented the largest areas of activation. CONCLUSIONS: These results concur with clinical observations assigning a critical role for the frontal poles and right anterior temporal cortex in the mediation of complex judgment processes according to moral constraints. The FPC may work in concert with the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral cortex in the regulation of human social conduct.

Adult↗

PubMed1986

Rule-governed behavior and sensitivity to changing consequences of responding.

Humans were presented with a task that required moving a light through a matrix. Button presses could produce light movements according to a multiple fixed-ratio 18/differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate 6-s schedule, with components alternating every 2 min. Moving the light through the maze earned points worth chances on money prizes. In Experiment 1 four conditions were assessed through between-subject comparisons: minimal instructions, instructions to press rapidly, instructions to press slowly, and instructions that sometimes rapid responding would work while at other times a slow rate would work best. Subjects responded in three successive sessions of 32 min each. The results suggested that instructions affected the nature of the contact made with the programmed consequences and thus subsequent performance. In some cases, responding seemed to result from added contingencies introduced by stating rules. In Experiment 2 the relative contribution of these two effects was assessed by presenting and then withdrawing two lights that had been paired with two specific instructions: "Go Fast" or "Go Slow." There were three conditions. In one condition, only the Go Fast light was on; in a second, only the Go Slow light was on; and in a third, the lights alternated each minute. In each condition, half the subjects had all instruction lights turned off after the first session. The results once again showed an effect of instructions on contact with the programmed consequences. However, responding sometimes continued in a manner consistent with added contingencies for rule-following even when the programmed consequences had been contacted and would have controlled a different type of responding in the absence of instructions. The relevance of added contingencies for rule-following in determining the effects of explicitly programmed consequences is emphasized.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1990

Recall and stem-completion priming have different electrophysiological correlates and are modified differentially by directed forgetting.

The notion that different aspects of memory are assessed by explicit and implicit memory tests was supported by behavioral and electrophysiological results. In a study-test procedure, 24 subjects were instructed to remember some words and to forget other words. Free recall and cued recall were better for words associated with the remember instruction, whereas directed forgetting did not influence stem completion (an implicit memory test). Event-related brain potentials elicited during study differed as a function of subsequent memory performance for free recall and cued recall, but not for stem completion. These results implicate encoding differences in the distinction between the 2 types of memory test. Factors governing whether explicit retrieval affects performance on an implicit memory test, mechanisms that may underlie directed-forgetting effects, and the importance of electrophysiological correlates of memory are also discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Positive effect of counseling and dose adjustment in patients with erectile dysfunction who failed treatment with sildenafil.

OBJECTIVE: Many patients with erectile dysfunction (ED) stop using sildenafil due to subjective failure. This study examined whether counseling and maximal dosing (100 mg) could achieve better treatment compliance and could possibly improve treatment outcome. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Patients were recruited by newspaper advertisements and referred to 5 ED centers throughout the country. Details about their previous experiences with sildenafil were recorded and following an explicit explanation about the nature and action of the drug, were offered to enter the study. Instructions on drug use were provided during each visit in which four 100 mg Sildenafil tablets were provided. Treatment outcomes were assessed by the international index of erectile function (IIEF) questionnaire after taking 4 and 8 tablets. In 2 ED centers a short video with sexual counseling content was added in between visits. RESULTS: The study cohort was comprised of 220 patients aged 27-88 years. The majority reported having received limited or no instructions on drug use when sildenafil was first prescribed. A significant increase in IIEF erectile function domain scores (EFDS) between visits 1, 2 and 3 was observed (10.96+/-0.40, 16.73+/-0.51 and 17.82+/-0.55 mean+/-SE, respectively), with 23.6% of the study patients achieving normal erectile function at the end of the study. The parameters of age and initial severity of ED most influenced treatment success. CONCLUSIONS: Counseling and dose adjustment were directly influential in achieving an excellent response to a second trial of sildenafil in patients with ED who had previously failed treatment with the drug, and obviated their needing to seek more invasive measures.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Patient education at 25 years; where we have been and where we are going.

In the past 25 years the theory and research base for patient education has become considerably richer. Definition of a core of educative functions has now been accomplished for most major disease entities or health problems, and standards of practice developed for a few. In the United States, there is very inadequate information about the degree to which patient education is delivered, and institutional supports for it seem to have varied with fiscal conditions. The reimbursement system for health care has not explicitly supported patient education or the outcomes it could achieve. While there has been growth in instructional approaches, it would be charitable to say that there is a broad and well-informed view of potential approaches or an organized research and development function to get these approaches on line. If predictions of patient focus for business and ethical reasons are realized, a major shift in environment could occur, supportive of patient education. Clearly, there is little evidence that patient education represents a mature technology or that it is delivered at acceptable standards to all those who need it. Patient education content in key nursing textbooks published between 1988 and 1992 is analysed to examine the degree and character of conceptual penetration.

Curriculum↗

PubMed1986

Can psychologists recognize neurological disorders in their patients?

A variety of insidious neurological disorders may present initially as psychological difficulties. In an effort to determine whether psychologists could recognize these disorders in their patients and refer them to a neurologist or nonneurological physician, a questionnaire containing four clinical vignettes was sent to a total of 566 members of the Los Angeles Psychological Association. Each vignette contained a salient description of an underlying neurological disorder with a psychological presentation. No explicit indication was made that the psychological problem represented an underlying neurological disorder. Each psychologist was instructed to read each vignette carefully and to decide what to recommend for each patient. Analysis of the data revealed that nearly one-third of the psychologists failed to recognize the underlying neurological disorder.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Examining the specificity of practice hypothesis: is learning modality specific?

The specificity of practice hypothesis was examined using a tracking task. In Experiment 1, visual or auditory feedback about performance was provided. Vision was more useful than audition early in acquisition. Performance gains found in acquisition were maintained during retention, but learning was specific only if the acquisition modality was visual. Specificity did not increase with the amount of practice. In Experiment 2, visual and auditory information were combined. Again, the specificity of practice hypothesis was supported. Also, instructing participants to attend to one information source allowed us to demonstrate that information can be explicitly or implicitly processed. Further, specificity effects may occur because of different rates of development for error detection and correction processes.

Auditory Perception↗