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PubMed1991

Procedural knowledge in mathematics: the role of the curriculum.

Over the last few years, the information processing model of cognition has become increasingly prominent in the field. With this model, and other related research in cognitive science, there is a greater appreciation for the role of instruction in learning theory. One of the model's central tenets is that, as learners become more competent, they move from declarative to procedural states of knowledge. Researchers have concerned themselves with the efficiency of this transition, as well as with any systematic misconceptions that develop along the way. A carefully developed curriculum addresses both of these concerns. This article will focus on three principles of curriculum development: the nature of examples, explicitness, and parsimony. Recently conducted research that supports these principles will also be discussed. It is suggested that special educators strongly consider these principles when selecting or developing curricular material for students with learning disabilities.

Child↗
PubMed2006

Beyond the 'new cross-cultural psychiatry': cultural biology, discursive psychology and the ironies of globalization.

The 'new cross-cultural psychiatry' heralded by Kleinman in 1977 promised a revitalized tradition that gave due respect to cultural difference and did not export psychiatric theories that were themselves culture bound. In the ensuing years, the view of culture within anthropology has continued to change, along with our understanding of the relationship of biological processes to cultural diversity, and the global political economic contexts in which mental health care is delivered. This article considers the implications of these new notions of culture, biology and the context of practice for theory in cultural psychiatry. The future of cultural psychiatry lies in advancing a broad perspective that: (a) is inherently multidisciplinary (involving psychiatric epidemiology, medical anthropology and sociology, cognitive science and social psychology), breaking down the nature/culture dichotomy with an integrative view of culture as a core feature of human biology, while remaining alert to cultural constructions of biological theory; (b) attends to psychological processes but understands these as not exclusively located within the individual but as including discursive processes that are fundamentally social; and (c) critically examines the interaction of both local and global systems of knowledge and power. Globalization has brought with it many ironies for cultural psychiatry: Transnational migrations have resulted in cultural hybridization at the same time as ethnicity has become more salient; the call for evidence-based medicine has been used to limit the impact of cultural research; and cultural psychiatry itself has been co-opted by pharmaceutical companies to inform marketing campaigns to promote conventional treatments for new populations. Cultural psychiatry must address these ironies to develop the self-critical awareness and flexibility needed to deliver humane care in shifting contexts.

Biology↗
PubMed2004

Reporting about health care quality: a guide to the galaxy.

A review of research on the reporting of health care quality information and related fields in applied social and cognitive science led to identification of seven basic principles that should be followed when planning to report health care quality information to consumers or other audiences: (a) know the audience: who they are, what they care about, and what actions they can take; (b) identify constraints that limit what is feasible; (c) consider barriers and facilitators to achieving objectives; (d) identify specific behaviors to target for change, and prioritize objectives; (e) design a report that specifically incorporates priorities and reflects trade-offs; (f) develop a plan for promotion and dissemination from the beginning; and (g) build in ongoing testing and evaluation to identify successes and areas needing improvement. Case studies provide many examples of unsuccessful reporting efforts that might have succeeded had these guiding principles been followed.

Consumer Advocacy↗
PubMed1994

Recognition of mental state terms. Clinical findings in children with autism and a functional neuroimaging study of normal adults.

BACKGROUND: The mind's ability to think about the mind has attracted substantial research interest in cognitive science in recent decades, as 'theory of mind'. No research has attempted to identify the brain basis of this ability, probably because it involves several separate processes. As a first step, we investigated one component process-the ability to recognise mental state terms. METHOD: In Experiment 1, we tested a group of children with autism (known to have theory of mind deficits) and a control group of children with mental handicap, for their ability to recognise mental state terms in a word list. This was to test if the mental state recognition task was related to traditional theory of mind tests. In Experiment 2, we investigated if in the normal brain, recognition of mental state terms might be localised. The procedure employed single photon emission computerised tomography (SPECT) in normal adult volunteers. We tested the prediction (based on available neurological and animal lesion studies) that there would be increased activation in the orbito-frontal cortex during this task, relative to a control condition, and relative to an adjacent frontal area (frontal-polar cortex). RESULTS: In Experiment 1, the group with autism performed significantly worse than the group without autism. In Experiment 2, there was increased cerebral blood flow during the mental state recognition task in the right orbito-frontal cortex relative to the left frontal-polar region. CONCLUSIONS: This simple mental state recognition task appears to relate to theory of mind, in that both are impaired in autism. The SPECT results implicate the orbito-frontal cortex as the basis of this ability.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Designing the future: NBIC technologies and human performance enhancement.

Never before has any civilization had the unique opportunity to enhance human performance on the scale that we will face in the near future. The convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, and cognitive science (NBIC) is creating a set of powerful tools that have the potential to significantly enhance human performance as well as transform society, science, economics, and human evolution. As the NBIC convergence becomes more understood, the possibility that we may be able to enhance human performance in the three domains of therapy, augmentation, and designed evolution will become anticipated and even expected. In addition, NBIC convergence represents entirely new challenges for scientists, policymakers, and business leaders who will have, for the first time, vast new and powerful tools to shape markets, societies, and lifestyles. The emergence of NBIC convergence will challenge us in new ways to balance risk and return, threat and opportunity, and social responsibility and competitive advantage as we step into the 21st century.

Biological Evolution↗
PubMed2004

Bio-inspired nano-sensor-enhanced CNN visual computer.

Nanotechnology opens new ways to utilize recent discoveries in biological image processing by translating the underlying functional concepts into the design of CNN (cellular neural/nonlinear network)-based systems incorporating nanoelectronic devices. There is a natural intersection joining studies of retinal processing, spatio-temporal nonlinear dynamics embodied in CNN, and the possibility of miniaturizing the technology through nanotechnology. This intersection serves as the springboard for our multidisciplinary project. Biological feature and motion detectors map directly into the spatio-temporal dynamics of CNN for target recognition, image stabilization, and tracking. The neural interactions underlying color processing will drive the development of nanoscale multispectral sensor arrays for image fusion. Implementing such nanoscale sensors on a CNN platform will allow the implementation of device feedback control, a hallmark of biological sensory systems. These biologically inspired CNN subroutines are incorporated into the new world of analog-and-logic algorithms and software, containing also many other active-wave computing mechanisms, including nature-inspired (physics and chemistry) as well as PDE-based sophisticated spatio-temporal algorithms. Our goal is to design and develop several miniature prototype devices for target detection, navigation, tracking, and robotics. This paper presents an example illustrating the synergies emerging from the convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology, and information and cognitive science.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Somatization and conversion: distinct or overlapping constructs?

The terms somatization and conversion are used descriptively to define specific diagnostic entities, and phenomenologically to denote pathologic processes that underlie somatic symptom formation. There is a lack of clarity, and even controversy, however, as to whether somatization and conversion should be considered distinct or overlapping constructs, and whether they contribute to the pathogenesis of certain organic diseases or solely to medically unexplained somatic symptoms. This article attempts to resolve some of this confusion by reviewing the origins of the terms somatization and conversion, and describing how their meanings and uses have evolved over the last century. Whereas some psychoanalysts and psychiatrists adopted Stekel's view that somatization involves a psychological process analogous to conversion, others maintained Freud's distinction between the psychoneuroses and the actual neuroses and view somatization as a physiological process. Recent psychoanalytic attempts to understand somatization are based on a modern theory of emotional processing, which is rooted in cognitive science and open to empirical research. Maintaining a conceptual distinction between somatization and conversion has important implications for psychoanalytic therapy.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

[Experimental models of schizophrenia--a review].

OBJECTIVE: Diagnostic and therapy of somatic diseases like diabetes and hypertension have improved notably with the use of experimental models. For schizophrenia the proposal of a model has made little impact and even scepticism. Nevertheless the most recent studies indicate that "Cognitive Sciences" applied to specific models may help us to find out mechanisms of the disease. This article reviews the models presently under investigation for schizophrenia. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The difficulty to model schizophrenia results from the subjectivity of its symptoms, the difficult to reproduce them in animals and the disease complexity. Research on such a complex phenotype can only proceed by separating its components (endophenotypes) from each other and by the respective manipulation of its experimental counterparts, made by specific interventions (e.g. pharmacological, surgical, genetic), in the search of a common mechanism leading to these endophenotypes. For integrating these findings with symptoms a global explanatory theory is required. So far, the disease seems to result from a diffuse neuronal disconnection as a consequence of minor brain abnormalities with a genetic and/or environmental cause. CONCLUSIONS: An integrative approach of the diversity of models presently used may improve our understanding of schizophrenia.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Effective teaching and learning strategies.

Over the past decade, leaders in pharmacy education and the profession in the United States focused on responding to the role of the pharmacist in the rapidly changing health care environment. This response included moving to the Doctor of Pharmacy as the entry-level degree in the profession. Less understood and often overlooked are pharmacy's responses to equally dramatic changes in the national higher education environment. One trend in higher education is the use of active teaching and learning methodologies, many of which are based on cognitive science research on human learning. The primary purpose of this paper is to focus on teaching and learning by describing the philosophy and policy changes of the new American Council on Pharmaceutical Education accreditation standards advocating active teaching and learning strategies, by discussing the implications for pharmacy faculty teaching roles and responsibilities, and by providing examples of active teaching and learning strategies and relevant literature embedded in the standards.

Accreditation↗
PubMed1991

The changing nature of psychiatry.

The traditional role of psychiatrist as the central figure in the delivery of mental health services is changing. First, the advent of structured diagnostic interviews means that the diagnosis of mental disorders is no longer the exclusive preserve of psychiatrists; second, the growth of community mental health services staffed by non-psychiatrists means that psychiatrists now treat a minority of the patients with mental disorders; and third, the psychiatrists' continued endorsement of dynamic psychotherapy means they are becoming identified with an unproven and very expensive treatment. These changes should be seen against the broader background of a profession that is well-trained, active in evaluating performance, supported by a burgeoning research base in cognitive science and neuroscience, and delivering services efficiently and inexpensively.

Australia↗
PubMed2005

Distance delivery of nutrition education.

Questions often arise about the quality of an educational experience in a distance format. Debate exists as to whether the relatively new format of on-line education can offer an equivalent learning experience for students, and the perception remains that virtual learning is impersonal. We examined students' experience in an introductory undergraduate nutrition course that had been remodelled as an asynchronous, active-learning, student-centred model. The investigation used the framework of instructional message design, a concept based on cognitive science principles, to highlight themes in student survey and focus group data. Results indicate that a motivating and accessible quality educational experience is possible in an on-line format through a student-centred model. Such a model provides a means to offer education to a diverse and larger audience. Further investigation is needed to determine faculty professional development needs and cost-effective ways to expand the model. Such a model provides alternatives to expand delivery to encourage interest in the field, and to provide continuing education for allied professionals and the general public.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The motor theory of speech perception reviewed.

More than 50 years after the appearance of the motor theory of speech perception, it is timely to evaluate its three main claims that (1) speech processing is special, (2) perceiving speech is perceiving gestures, and (3) the motor system is recruited for perceiving speech. We argue that to the extent that it can be evaluated, the first claim is likely false. As for the second claim, we review findings that support it and argue that although each of these findings may be explained by alternative accounts, the claim provides a single coherent account. As for the third claim, we review findings in the literature that support it at different levels of generality and argue that the claim anticipated a theme that has become widespread in cognitive science.

Association Learning↗
PubMed1999

Innovative thinking for the improvement of medical systems.

If health care systems are not delivering the desired results, those systems must be changed in some way. Innovative thinking is sometimes needed to generate ideas for improvement. Many persons erroneously believe that innovative thinking is a special gift or that it requires an air of lightheartedness that seems inappropriate in a health care setting. Current research in the cognitive sciences has yielded methods to help individual persons and groups generate innovative ideas. These methods do not require any special gift and can be practiced in a serious way. Through a case example from a health maintenance organization, this paper shows that, given some direction, groups of health care professionals can produce useful and innovative ideas. The tools of idea generation are based on three principles: mental attention, escape, and movement. Activities that help persons pay attention to their current situations in a different way, escape their current mental patterns about the situation, and maintain movement in their thoughts support efforts to generate innovative, testable ideas for health system improvements. This paper illustrates several methods of stimulating innovative thinking and shows the ways in which they can be applied in health care.

Creativity↗
PubMed1994

Tutorial: directed creativity.

While we recognize the need for creative approaches to nagging problems and new opportunities, generating practical new ideas is often a challenge. Many people have convinced themselves that they are simply not creative thinkers; they can only marvel at those who seem to possess "the gift." However, research over the last few decades in the field of cognitive science has indicated that the capacity for creative thought is a basic mental ability that we all possess. We will review these new theories about creativity and discuss actions that we can take to direct our thoughts towards novel ends.

Creativity↗
PubMed2000

Statistical support for uncertainty in radiological diagnosis.

Radiological interpretation and diagnosis involves the comparison and classification of complex medical images and is typical of the categorisation tasks that have been the subject of observational studies in Cognitive Science. This paper considers the affinity between statistical modelling and theories of categorisation for naturally occurring categories. Statistical based measures of similarity and typicality with a probabilistic interpretation are derived. The utilisation of these measures in the support of diagnosis under uncertainty via interactive overview plots is described. The application of the methodology to magnetic resonance imaging of the head is considered. The methods detailed have application to other fields involving archiving and retrieving of image data.

Decision Support Techniques↗
PubMed2000

Evaluation of Web-based patient information resources: application in the assessment of a patient clinical information system.

The advent of Internet-based information systems has provided unprecedented opportunity for the widespread access to medical information. However, issues related to the evaluation of such systems to ensure their usability, effectiveness and to assess their effect on the provider-patient relationship pose a considerable challenge. This paper describes a framework for the distance evaluation of web-based information technologies. The methods are described in the context of an ongoing evaluation of a system known as PatCIS, designed to be accessed by patients from home for obtaining health information, and for management of chronic diseases. We employ a multi-method approach that involves collection of a rich data set, including Web-based questionnaires, automatic logging of user activity and e-mail communication with users. Our work in evaluation design is influenced from research in the areas of cognitive science and the field of usability engineering which aims to characterize the interaction of users with information technologies.

Attitude to Computers↗
PubMed2000

Influence of behavioral science research on oral health promotion.

To realize the benefits of advances in preventive and problem-focused dentistry, patients must carry out specific oral health behaviors. The behaviors range from seeking preventive care, to keeping appointments, to carrying out home-based self-care regimens. Unfortunately, rates of these behaviors are less than optimal and maximizing patient involvement in dental care is a major challenge facing dentistry. In fact, poor rates of patient adherence remains a significant problem in all areas of health care. Aspects of the treatment regimen itself as well as provider and patient actions impact these outcomes. Theoretical models grounded in the behavioral sciences provide useful frameworks for understanding the process of health behavior change that can be applied to patient care. Research in health promotion and disease prevention have identified a number of psychological, social, and environmental issues related to oral health behaviors and outcomes, including personal barriers, social support, stress and coping, health beliefs, and dental anxiety. These barriers are discussed, and examples of interventions that have incorporated theoretical models and behavioral outcomes and linking them to oral health are provided. Future directions of the expanding area of behavioral science and oral health promotion in clinical practice are discussed.

Behavioral Sciences↗
PubMed2002

Five dangers of materialism.

Amidst the boon of medical, scientific, and technological progress, materialism has gained increasing explanatory power in deciphering the enigma of mind. But with the proliferation and acceptance of cognitive science, psychic reality has been largely reduced to a physical ontology. In this article, the author explores the ground, scope, and limits to the materialist framework and shows that although biological-neurochemical physiology is a necessary condition for mental functioning, it is far from a sufficient condition to adequately explain the human being. This situation becomes especially significant when one examines the issues of selfhood, freedom, personal autonomy, and the phenomenal quality of the lived experience.

Awareness↗