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Results for “Cognitive Dissonance”

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PubMed1975

Escalation of aggression: experimental studies.

A finding commonly obtained in research using the Buss "aggression machine" is a main effect for trail blocks, indicating an escalation in shock intensity over trails. Theoretical explanations for this effect were tested in a modified verbal operant-conditioning situation. In Experiment 1, subjects could administer any of 10 levels of positive reinforcement to a "learner" for correct verbal responses or any of 10 levels of negative reinforcement to a learner for incorrect responses. Half of the subjects were required to begin with weak, half with strong, reinforcements. Results indicated that, regardless of condition, subjects gave more intense reinforcements as the learning trails progressed. Those who administered negative reinforcements devalued the learner relative to those who administered positive reinforcements. In Experiment 2, a role-playing procedure was used in which subjects administered either positive or negative reinforcements to a learner whose performance either did or did not improve over trials. Again, in all experimental groups, subjects administered increasingly intense reinforcements over trials. The results are interpreted as supporting a disinhibition theory of anti- and prosocial behavior.

Aggression↗
PubMed2001

Cognitive biases and addiction: an evolution in theory and method.

An evolution in theoretical models and methodological paradigms for investigating cognitive biases in the addictions is discussed. Anomalies in traditional cognitive perspectives, and problems with the self-report methods which underpin them, are highlighted. An emergent body of cognitive research, contextualized within the principles and paradigms of cognitive neuropsychology rather than social learning theory, is presented which, it is argued, addresses these anomalies and problems. Evidence is presented that biases in the processing of addiction-related stimuli, and in the network of propositions which motivate addictive behaviours, occur at automatic, implicit and pre-conscious levels of awareness. It is suggested that methods which assess such implicit cognitive biases (e.g. Stroop, memory, priming and reaction-time paradigms) yield findings which have better predictive utility for ongoing behaviour than those biases determined by self-report methods of introspection. The potential utility of these findings for understanding "loss of control" phenomena, and the desynchrony between reported beliefs and intentions and ongoing addictive behaviours, is discussed. Applications to the practice of cognitive therapy are considered.

Behavior, Addictive↗
PubMed2002

[Tolerance of ambiguity, art therapy and psychiatric illness].

Tolerance of ambiguity means the ability to tolerate contradictory and incalculable informations. There is the hypothesis that a high degree of tolerance of ambiguity correlates with creativity. It is unclear how various psychiatric illnesses and psychopathological conditions affect tolerance of ambiguity. Therefore we carried out a study concerning the tolerance of ambiguity: 154 persons were systematically investigated with a standardized questionnaire (31 schizophrenic in-patients, 41 neurotic in-patients, 49 members of the staff as control group, 33 artists as control group). In addition we examined the degree of depression in the neurotic group, the anancasm score and the well-being in general. In the schizophrenic group we assessed psychotic symptoms, the positive and negative symptoms, medication, anancasm and depression. Tolerance of ambiguity decreased in the following sequence: artists - members of the staff - neurotic in-patients - schizophrenic in-patients. It became evident that in the schizophrenic group negative symptoms negatively correlates with tolerance of ambiguity. The results seem to confirm the hypothesis that there is a positive correlation between tolerance of ambiguity and creativity. In addition, the higher degree of intolerance of ambiguity in schizophrenic patients may represent a protective mechanism. Intolerance of ambiguity possibly protects from too many contradictory informations. Furthermore the necessity is confirmed that creative therapy methods should be carefully chosen to avoid irritation on the one hand and not to neglect the required training of creative basic functions on the other hand. Although our results weaken the thesis that psychiatric illness is generally associated with an increase of creativity they don't exclude that highly creative performances in some individuals are possible who are especially talented in spite of or even because of their emotional suffering.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Neutralization theory and the denial of risk: some evidence from cannabis use among French adolescents.

In contemporary societies, risk culture and risk profiling lead to the stigmatization of unhealthy behaviours as 'risky'. Risk denial theory refers to a cognitive way to deal with risky behaviours and can be considered as an updated variant of Sykes and Matza's neutralization theory. People neutralize the 'risky' label using specific techniques that must be added to those previously enlisted by Sykes and Matza. This paper introduces and discusses three techniques of risk denial: scapegoating, self-confidence and comparison between risks. As it is usually defined and studied as a 'risky behaviour', cannabis use provides a relevant example to illustrate these types of risk denial, thanks to various ethnographic studies (including Becker's seminal work on marijuana smokers) and quantitative French data from the 1999 European School Survey on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD). In order to deny the 'risky' label, cannabis users scapegoat 'hard drugs' users, they emphasize their own ability to control their consumption personally, or they compare cannabis and alcohol risks. The paper concludes with suggestions for further analyses of risk denial.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Contextual connections within puns: effects on perceived humor and memory.

The supposition that perceived humor or cleverness would be enhanced by adding separate content to the alternative meanings of a pun was explored, using Tom Swifties as the research vehicle. Because detecting a punning word relationship might induce arousal, requiring more effort and attentional resources for processing than noting a contextual connection, memory strength for adverbs was also examined using a recognition procedure. Five studies were conducted in which college students were asked to judge 24 Swifties (content counterbalanced across participants) in which presence of pun and context were manipulated. The punning relationship was primarily responsible for perceived humor and cleverness. Presence of a pun also enhanced memory strength (d') as long as the familiarization task focused on humor and cleverness. Coherent context enhanced perceived cleverness inconsistently. It was suggested that a coherent contextual connection may make a greater contribution in more lengthy forms of pun-based word play, such as fables or "shaggy dog" stories.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Nocturnal orgasm in college women: its relation to dreams and anxiety associated with sexual factors.

Ss (N = 774 female undergraduates) were administered a structured questionnaire and an anxiety scale. It was found that women do experience nocturnal orgasms during sleep. Chi-square analysis revealed that a differential exists between academic levels with senior experiencing states of sexual excitement more than freshmen, sophomores, and juniors. Sexual excitement during sleeping hours and a high degree of anxiety were positively related.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Correlates of academic procrastination: discomfort, task aversiveness, and task capability.

The relationships among five aspects of academic procrastination--behavioral delay, personal upset about the delay, task aversiveness, task capability, and the desire to reduce behavioral delay--were investigated in 10th-grade Israeli students (N = 195). Upset about delay was weakly related to delay itself, and--unlike delay--was strongly related to perceived capability to perform academic tasks and to the desire to change delaying behavior. Students delayed more on academic tasks labeled unpleasant than pleasant, were neutral in between, and were correspondingly more upset about the former than the latter. They more frequently acknowledged reasons for academic procrastination that were less threatening to their self-image (e.g., problems in time management) than reasons that were more threatening (e.g., lack of ability). Interest in reducing delay is related more to self-perceived ability to handle tasks than to time spent procrastinating or reasons given for procrastinating.

Adolescent↗