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PubMed1963

EFFECTS OF BACTERIAL ENDOTOXIN ON WATER INTAKE, FOOD INTAKE, AND BODY TEMPERATURE IN THE ALBINO RAT.

Intraperitoneal injections of Escherichia coli endotoxin in albino rats produces a decrease in food and water intake and a drop in body temperature. The drop in temperature and in water intake is probably proportional to the size of the dose. Using a behavioral test in which animals are trained to press a bar at a steady rate for intermittent food or water reward, it is possible to demonstrate the sudden onset of the toxin effect at 30 to 45 minutes after injection. In any group of rats, all of whom were presumably exposed to E. coli, three types of response to toxin can be found: (a) Sharp reduction in water intake 30 minutes after injection. (b) Little or no change in intake or rate of working for water reward. (c) Immediate depression of work rate. These three types of reaction appear related to previous experience with the toxin. The "normal" or "inexperienced" reaction a was seen in animals who had not been given toxin before. The "protected" reaction b, with little or no effect of toxin injection on response rate was frequently found 4 to 5 days after a previous injection. The "susceptible" reaction c was found in three animals after 14 or more days had passed since a previous injection. Injections of toxin into the lateral hypothalamic region of four animals through implanted cannulae had no effect on the rate of bar pressing for water. Control injections of lidocaine blocked response rate completely for brief periods in three animals.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Hyponeophagia in Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats.

Unconditioned suppression of feeding due to novelty (hyponeophagia) was studied in Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Lewis, Fischer 344, and Wistar rats. Fasted rats were given access to food either in home cages (controls) or to a single pellet fixed to the middle of a novel open field environment (experimental). The degree of feeding suppression was significantly greater in WKY rats compared to the other three strains. We suggest that this hyponeophagia resembles the reduced feeding frequently associated with behavioral depression, and that this behavior in WKY rats is another demonstration that this strain is very responsive to stressful stimulation and may serve as a useful animal model for depressive behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

The hippocampus as an olfacto-motor mechanism: were the classical anatomists right after all?

The relations between behavior, olfactory input (monitored by recording the activity of the olfactory mucosa), and the spontaneous field potentials of the dentate gyrus were studied in freely moving rats. Bursts of 30-80 Hz (gamma) waves were elicited in the dentate gyrus when a rat sniffed at a variety of objects but were not elicited by auditory, somesthetic, or visual inputs and were not related to the occurrence of locomotion. The presence of gamma wave activity was associated with an enhancement of the population spike elicited in the dentate gyrus by stimulation of the perforant path. Odorized air blown into a nostril via a cannula, inserted under light urethane anesthesia, elicited a gamma wave response bilaterally in the dentate gyrus. These and other data were reviewed to support the general hypothesis that the hippocampus is primarily an olfacto-motor mechanism and does not play any unique role in learning and memory, cognitive mapping, or emotion. The role of the hippocampus in the control of some forms of motor activity is supported by numerous anatomical and electrophysiological studies, studies of the effect of hippocampal lesions on behavior, and studies of the effects of electrical or chemical stimulation of the hippocampus on behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Dopamine in the nucleus accumbens: cellular actions, drug- and behavior-associated fluctuations, and a possible role in an organism's adaptive activity.

This review expounds the idea that the analysis of dopamine (DA) action on target cells under behaviorally relevant conditions and behavior-related changes in DA activity can offer new information to clarify the functional significance of mesocorticolimbic DA. In contrast to the traditional association of DA with certain behavioral processes and mechanisms (activation, arousal, conditioning, motivation, reinforcement, sensorimotor integration, etc.), evaluation of DA activity during well-controlled behaviors established by different reinforcers can provide important clues for determining the role of DA in the development and regulation of goal-directed behavior. This review summarizes the results of our microiontophoretic studies of striatal neurons in awake, unrestrained rats, particularly the action of DA on spontaneously active and glutamate (GLU)-stimulated cells, the pattern of DA-GLU interaction, and the role of tonic DA release in regulating the activity and afferent responsiveness of these units. We present the results of our iontophoretic studies of ventral tegmental area (VTA) neurons in freely moving animals suggesting the complexity and limitations in their identification as DA- and non-DA cells under behaviorally relevant conditions. We also consider technical and methodological problems related to electrophysiological and electrochemical evaluation of DA transmission in behaving animals. Finally, we discuss parallels and differences in the activity of presumed DA VTA neurons and changes of nucleus accumbens DA-dependent electrochemical signal during heroin self-administration (SA) behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) manufacture and use tools.

Lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) in captive social groups spontaneously manufactured and used tools to extract syrup from an apparatus that was designed to accommodate probing behavior. An attempt to replicate these findings with mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) was unsuccessful. This report is the first to describe spontaneous manufacture of tools in any group of Old World monkeys and provides evidence of greater continuity among primates for the expression of complex cognitive abilities. These data are consistent with hypotheses that lion-tailed macaques have extensive propensities for advanced sensorimotor skills and that omnivorous, extractive foraging is associated with the manufacture and use of tools. I present a proximate model that integrates sensorimotor and social factors to account for diverse expression of tool-related behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Spontaneous use of matching visual cues during foraging by long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis).

A social group of 38 captive-born Macaca fascicularis was confined to a holding cage while food was placed in an outdoor enclosure next to a structure (e.g., stone, tree) that varied across trials. After the group was released and obtained the food, animals inspected other structures similar to the baited structure more quickly and more often than they inspected equally conspicuous nonmatching structures. Animals also varied their search according to the quality of food, remembered the exact location of food on the previous trial, and discriminated sharply between locations where other macaques found or did not find food. Use of visual cues by experimentally naive macaques seems far more efficient than would be expected from many prior laboratory studies but is consistent with wild macaque foraging behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Saccharin hoarding by albino rats: further evidence on incentive and object retrieval.

Albino rats were allowed to retrieve dental pledgets soaked in water or pledgets soaked in 1.0% saccharin solution from wooden alleys into their home cages. Under ad lib conditions more saccharin pledgets were hoarded than water pledgets, but during water deprivation this preference was reversed. If rats were given saccharin pledgets alone, hoarding did not decline during water deprivation. Rats showed the ad lib saccharin preference although they did not hoard their normal diet of food pellets, and it was maintained in animals that had received saccharin since weaning. Hence sweetness of taste is a property of objects that can induce hoarding, and the reversal in hoarding during deprivation is due to an increased preference for water rather than a diminished saccharin preference. This indicates that incentive properties of objects are crucial to the expression of this species-typical behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Variation in neuromuscular activity during prey capture by trophic specialists and generalists (Pisces: Labridae).

Members of the marine teleost family Labridae are among the most abundant and morphologically diverse fish on coral reefs. A quantitative analysis was conducted of the neuromuscular activity patterns controlling movement of the jaws during prey capture by 4 labrid species ranging from trophic specialists to trophic generalists. A total of more than 800 captures of 3 prey types was analyzed. All 4 species showed significant modulation of electromyographic parameters in response to different prey types. Significant variation was also found between replicate experiments on the same individuals. To obtain valid assessments of interspecific variability, statistical analyses must take into account this potentially high degree of intraspecific variability. By partitioning the variance in a nested analysis of variance, a lack of significant differences in electromyographic parameters between species became apparent. In contrast to the closely related Cichlidae, trophic diversification in the Labridae has not been accompanied by the acquisition of unique neuromuscular activity patterns for prey capture. The dramatic adaptive radiation that has occurred in these 2 families has involved different processes of evolutionary diversification. Neuromuscular stereotypy of labrids may be associated with the lack of structural flexibility in their 'coupled jaw'. Additional study is needed to establish the extent to which labrid radiation into various trophic niches is related to the evolution of specialized morphologies and foraging behaviors.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Conjoint schedules of timeout deletion in pigeons.

This experiment attempted to bring behavior under joint control of two distinct contingencies, one that provided food and a second that extended the periods during which that food was available. Pigeons' responses on each of two keys were reinforced according to a single random-interval schedule of food presentation except during signaled timeout periods during which the schedule was temporarily disabled. By means of a conjoint schedule, responses on the initially less preferred key not only produced food but also canceled impending timeouts. When behavior came to predominate on this conjoint alternative, the consequences of responding on the two keys were reversed. Responding in 3 of 4 pigeons proved sensitive to the conjoint scheduled consequences, as evidenced by systematic shifts in response rates favoring the conjoint key. In 2 of these 3 pigeons, sensitivity to the conjoint contingency was evident under time-in:timeout ratios of 2:1 (time-in = 120 s, timeout = 60 s) and 1:5 (time-in = 30 s, timeout = 150 s), whereas for the other pigeon preference for the conjoint key was observed only under the latter sequence of conditions. There was only weak evidence of control by the conjoint scheduled consequences in the 4th subject, despite extended training and forced exposure to the conjoint alternative. The overall pattern of results is consistent with studies of timeout avoidance but also shares features in common with positively reinforced behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Drug addiction as drive satisfaction ("antidrive") dysfunction.

Drug addiction is a complex brain disorder, characterized by the loss of control over drug seeking and drug taking behavior, and by the risk of relapse, even after a prolonged period of abstinence. This disorder may have its source in a disturbed balance of drive-related behaviors, which control appetitive reactions aimed at seeking contact with an addictive substance. The act of consumption becomes more and more attractive, and the behavior takes on compulsive character. We suppose that drug addiction may involve a change in the mechanism of satisfaction of drives and states of satiation as well. To understand how the motivational processes are changed with the development of dependence, one must consider the mechanism of drive satisfaction and satiation states that occur in relation to the consumatory reflex. When a given drive is satisfied a state of fulfillment occurs. This state may be a result of a so-called "antidrive" mechanism (Konorski 1967). While a drive activity is characterized by general activation and tension, the drive satisfaction state ("antidrive") is characterized by relaxation and relief. When a particular drive is satisfied, the operation of other drives become possible. Therefore, we postulate that dysfunction of drive satisfaction leads to the sustained activation related to the current drug-related drive, which blocks the operation of other drives. In effect, uncontrolled compulsive appetitive behavior is released, and the operation of other drives is restrained, thus forcing the organism to focus on drug-related drive. The reason for an "antidrive" dysfunction may be related to adaptive changes which develop during a contact with an addictive substance.

Drive↗
PubMed2004

Testosterone and chemosensory detection in male Syrian hamster.

Gonadal steroids stimulate both sexual motivation and performance. However, steroid facilitation of appetitive sexual behavior is poorly understood. The present study determined if castration impairs chemosensory detection in male hamsters. Chemosensory cues are the principal sensory modality to initiate mating in this species. We compared LiCl-induced conditioned taste avoidance to female hamster vaginal secretion (FHVS) in gonad-intact and castrated males. Following overnight water deprivation, males received FHVS for 15 min, followed by LiCl (2 ml of 0.15 M) or saline ip. The next day, fluid consumption in a two-bottle choice test was recorded for 5.5 h. Pairings were repeated 4x. Initially, discrimination of FHVS from estrous females (10 or 100 microg/ml) was compared with plain water. Subsequently, we determined if males could distinguish FHVS from Syrian vs. Djungarian females or from estrous vs. anestrous females. When 100 microg/ml FHVS was paired with saline, all gonad-intact and 86% of castrated males preferred FHVS over water. However, when 100 microg/ml FHVS was paired with LiCl, the preference was reversed: 12.5% of intact males and 25% of castrates preferred FHVS (P < 0.05 vs. saline pairing). When exposed to 10 microg/ml FHVS, neither gonad-intact nor castrated males expressed conditioned taste avoidance, suggesting that 10 microg/ml FHVS is below the threshold for detection. Comparing discrimination of FHVS from Syrian and Djungarian females, only castrated males developed a significant conditioned taste avoidance to Syrian FHVS paired with LiCl. While 71% of castrated males preferred Syrian FHVS after saline pairing, only 12.5% of castrates preferred Syrian FHVS after pairing with LiCl (P < 0.05). In gonad-intact males, 57% preferred Syrian FHVS after saline pairing, while 14% preferred Syrian FHVS following LiCl pairing (P > 0.05). Neither gonad-intact nor castrated males successfully discriminated between FHVS from estrous and anestrous females. These data demonstrate that castrated males perform as well as gonad-intact males in a test of LiCl-induced conditioned taste avoidance. Therefore, it is unlikely that steroids enhance detection of sexually relevant chemosensory cues.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Appetitive as well as consummatory aspects of male sexual behavior in quail are activated by androgens and estrogens.

Appetitive male sexual behavior was measured in male quail with the use of a learned social proximity procedure that quantified the time spent by a male in front of a window providing a view of a female that was subsequently released into the cage, providing an opportunity for copulation. The learned response is not acquired by castrated males but can be acquired when castrates are treated with testosterone (T) or with the synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol or with the endogenous estrogen 17 beta-estradiol. Only birds that become sexually active acquire the response. Conversely, birds in which the consummatory copulatory behavior is disrupted by treatment with the antiestrogen tamoxifen lose the anticipatory response. These results demonstrate that appetitive sexual behavior is, like copulation, activated by T and by estrogens. This suggests that intracerebral aromatization of T also plays a critical role in the activation of this behavior.

Androgens↗
PubMed2001

Effects of amphetamine, dexfenfluramine, diazepam, and other pharmacological and dietary manipulations on food "seeking" and "taking" behavior in non-human primates.

RATIONALE: Feeding consists of appetitive or foraging behavior followed by consummatory behavior. OBJECTIVES: To determine if pharmacological manipulations can differentially affect appetitive and consummatory aspects of food intake, and to compare these results to those obtained using naturalistic dietary manipulations. METHODS: Responding of baboons was studied using a schedule of reinforcement that simulated food "seeking" and food "taking." Responding during the seeking component was reinforced by stimuli paired with food, while responding during the taking component was reinforced with food. The effects of intramuscular amphetamine (AMPH), dexfenfluramine (DFEN), diethylpropion (DEP), phencyclidine (PCP), diazepam (DZP), as well as caloric prefeeding and acute food deprivation were determined. RESULTS: AMPH decreased food taking and increased food seeking, DEP decreased food taking without affecting food seeking, DFEN and PCP decreased both food taking and food seeking, while DZP increased both food taking and food seeking. Caloric prefeeding decreased food taking and increased food seeking, i.e., resembled AMPH, while acute deprivation increased both food taking and food seeking, i.e., resembled DZP. CONCLUSIONS: Manipulations that increase dopamine turnover, such as AMPH, increase food seeking, while decreasing food intake. In contrast, manipulations that increase serotonin turnover, such as DFEN, decrease both food seeking and food taking.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed2006

The interactive functioning of anxiety and depression in agonistic encounters and reconciliation.

This paper explores the well-known overlap of anxiety and depressive symptoms in mood and anxiety disorders. We suggest that the regulation of both negative and positive affects has served important adaptive functions (especially for coping with threats, losses, failures and defeats), and that in some contexts both affect systems require regulation at the same time (e.g. increased anxiety coupled with low positive affect). Here we will focus on how low positive and high negative affect in the individual experiencing losses and defeats regulates their competitive and acquisitive behaviors and in some cases may prevent, de-escalate, and possibly terminate on-going agonistic (hierarchical) encounters. When high negative affect (anxiety) and low positive affect (depression) fail to fulfill their adaptive roles, they tend to persist and often intensify. This may lead each affect control system to stimulate specific types of anxiety and depressive disorders, exhibiting features reminiscent of the original adaptive function of the behavior. Furthermore, as these different systems tend to operate in a synchronous fashion, the psychiatric syndromes they generate are often comorbid.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2000

Fos induction in the Japanese quail brain after expression of appetitive and consummatory aspects of male sexual behavior.

We investigated the expression of Fos, the protein product of the immediate early gene c-fos in the brain of male Japanese quail after they engaged in either appetitive or consummatory sexual behavior (i. e., copulation). For 1 h, castrated males treated with testosterone were either allowed to copulate with a female or to exhibit a learned social proximity response indicative of appetitive sexual behavior. Control birds were either left in their home cage or placed in the experimental chamber but did not exhibit the appetitive sexual behavior because they had never learned it. Fos expression was studied with an immunocytochemical procedure in two sets of adjacent sections through the entire forebrain. These sections were immunolabelled with 2 different antibodies raised against a synthetic fragment corresponding to the 21 carboxy-terminal residues of the chicken Fos sequence. Contrary to the results of a previous study in which gonadally intact birds were used, Fos induction was observed neither in the medial preoptic nucleus nor in the nucleus intercollicularis in birds that had interacted for 1 h with a female. This may be related to a lower frequency of copulation in the testosterone-implanted birds than in intact birds, or to differences in the time the brains were collected after the birds engaged in sexual behavior between the two studies (60 min in this study, 120 min in the previous study). The performance of copulation and/or appetitive sexual behavior increased the number of Fos-immunoreactive cells in the ventral hyperstriatum, medial archistriatum, and nucleus striae terminalis. These increases were observed using both antibodies, although each antibody produced minor differences in the number of Fos-immunoreactive cells observed. Using one of the antibodies, but not the other, increases in Fos immunoreactivity were also observed in the nucleus accumbens and hyperstriatum after either copulation or appetitive sexual behavior. These differences illustrate how minor technical variations in the Fos immunocytochemical procedure influence the results obtained. These differences also show that Fos induction in a number of brain regions is observed after performance of consummatory (copulation) as well as appetitive (looking at the female) sexual behavior. This induction is, therefore, not related solely to the control of copulatory acts but, presumably, also to the processing in a variety of telencephalic association areas of stimuli originating from the female. The observation that increased Fos immunoreactivity is present in birds that had learned the response indicative of appetitive sexual behavior, and not in those that had not learned the behavior, further indicates that it is not simply the sight of the female that results in this Fos induction, but the analysis of the relevant stimuli in a sexually explicit context. Conditioned neural activity resulting from a learned association between the stimulus female and the performance of copulatory behavior may also explain some aspects of the brain activation observed in birds viewing, but not allowed to interact with, the female.

Analysis of Variance↗