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PubMed2004

Effects of oral contraceptives on body composition and physical performance in female athletes.

Menstrual disturbances are common among female athletes, and oral contraceptives (OCs) are often recommended as estrogen substitution. However, there is little information about the effects of OC use in athletes, and there is great concern that OCs might impair physical performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of OC use on body composition and physical performance in female athletes. Twenty-six endurance athletes (13 with oligo-/amenorrhea and 13 regularly menstruating athletes) and 12 sedentary controls were examined before and after 10 months of treatment with a low dose, monophasic, combined OC. Significant changes in body composition were recorded in the athletes, but not in the controls. There was an increase in weight and fat mass only in athletes with oligo-/amenorrhea. These changes were associated with a decrease in ovarian androgens. OC treatment also increased bone mineral density, with the largest increase in athletes with a low bone mineral density at baseline. Despite significant changes in body composition, little impact on physical performance was recorded. We have demonstrated that OC treatment in female athletes has predominantly beneficial effects on body composition without adverse effects on physical performance and could be used for the prevention of osteoporosis in athletic amenorrhea. However, it cannot be excluded that a marked increase in fat mass might have unfavorable effects for athletic performance in individual women.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Athletes with exercise-associated fatigue have abnormally short muscle DNA telomeres.

INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE: Although the beneficial health effects of regular moderate exercise are well established, there is substantial evidence that the heavy training and racing carried out by endurance athletes can cause skeletal muscle damage. This damage is repaired by satellite cells that can undergo a finite number of cell divisions. In this study, we have compared a marker of skeletal muscle regeneration of athletes with exercise-associated chronic fatigue, a condition labeled the "fatigued athlete myopathic syndrome" (FAMS), with healthy asymptomatic age- and mileage-matched control endurance athletes. METHODS: Muscle biopsies of the vastus lateralis were obtained from 13 patients diagnosed with FAMS and from 13 healthy control subjects. DNA was extracted from the muscle samples and their telomeric restriction fragment (TRF) or telomere lengths were measured by Southern blot analysis. RESULTS: All 13 symptomatic athletes reported a progressive decline in athletic performance, decreased ability to tolerate high mileage training, and excessive muscular fatigue during exercise. The minimum value of TRF lengths (4.0 +/- 1.8 kb) measured on the DNA from vastus lateralis biopsies from these athletes were significantly shorter than those from 13 age- and mileage-matched control athletes (5.4 +/- 0.6 kb, P < 0.05). Three of the FAMS patients had extremely short telomeres (1.0 +/- 0.3 kb). The minimum TRF lengths of the remaining 10 symptomatic athletes (4.9 +/- 0.5 kb, P < 0.05) were also significantly shorter that those of the control athletes. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that skeletal muscle from symptomatic athletes with FAMS show extensive regeneration which most probably results from more frequent bouts of satellite cell proliferation in response to recurrent training- and racing-induced muscle injury.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Contributing factors to performance of a medicine ball explosive power test: a comparison between jump and nonjump athletes.

The present study examined the factors contributing to performance of a backward overhead medicine ball throw (B-MBT) across 2 types of athletes. Twenty male volleyball players (jump athletes) and 20 wrestlers (nonjump athletes) were evaluated on 4 measures of power, including B-MBT, chest medicine ball throw (C-MBT), countermovement vertical jump (CMJ), and power index (PI). The athletes also completed 3 measures of strength: a 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) bench press (BP), a 1RM leg press (LP), and combined BP + LP strength. Jump athletes demonstrated greater absolute scores for CMJ, C-MBT, and B-MBT (p < 0.05), whereas nonjump athletes demonstrated greater strength scores for BP and for BP + LP (p < 0.05). When performances were examined on a relative basis, jump athletes achieved superior scores for C-MBT (p < 0.05), whereas nonjump athletes had greater scores for BP, LP, and BP + LP (p < 0.05). For both groups, B-MBT had strong correlations with PI (r = 0.817 [jump] and 0.917 [nonjump]), whereas for C-MBT, only nonjump athletes demonstrated a strong correlation (r = 0.842). When expressed in relative terms, B-MBT was strongly correlated with C-MBT (r = 0.762 [jump] and 0.835 [nonjump]) and CMJ (r = 0.899 [jump] and 0.945 [nonjump]). Only nonjump athletes demonstrated strong correlations with strength for absolute LP (r = 0.801) and BP + LP (r = 0.810) strength. The interaction of upper- and lower-body strength and power in the performance of a B-MBT appears complex, with the contributing factors differing for athletes with divergent skill sets and performance demands.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Perceived importance of weight training to selected NCAA Division III men and women student-athletes.

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in perception of the importance of weight training as a part of general and sport-specific training for selected collegiate men and women student-athletes. Subjects included 139 men and 165 women varsity National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III student-athletes who participated in the following sports: baseball, basketball, field hockey, football, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track & field, or volleyball. Men student-athletes were significantly more likely to consider weight training essential to their general and sport-specific training than women student-athletes, as measured by the Training Information Survey. Additionally, men student-athletes were found to be significantly more competitive and win-oriented than women student-athletes (p < 0.001) as measured by the Sport Orientation Questionnaire, which is consistent with previous research. Results also showed that only highly goal-oriented student-athletes perceived weight training as: (a) important to both men and women and (b) having both feminine and masculine traits. It was concluded that significant gender differences exist in the perceived importance of weight training and that the constructs of competitiveness, win and goal orientation, may influence a student-athlete's perception of the importance of weight training. Coaches of both men and women student-athletes must teach that weight training is important for female and male student-athletes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

A successful social norms campaign to reduce alcohol misuse among college student-athletes.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the impact of a social norms intervention to reduce alcohol misuse among student-athletes. The intervention was designed to reduce harmful misperceptions of peer norms and, in turn, reduce personal risk. METHOD: A comprehensive set of interventions communicating accurate local norms regarding alcohol use targeted student-athletes at an undergraduate college. An anonymous survey of all student-athletes was conducted annually for 3 years (2001: n = 414, 86% response; 2002: n = 373, 85% response; and 2003: n = 353, 79% response). A pre/post comparison of student-athletes was conducted separately for new and ongoing athletes at each time point to isolate any general time period effects from intervention effects. A cross-sectional analysis of student-athletes with varying degrees of program exposure was also performed. RESULTS: The intervention substantially reduced misperceptions of frequent alcohol consumption and high-quantity social drinking as the norm among student-athlete peers. During this same time period, frequent personal consumption, high-quantity consumption, high estimated peak blood alcohol concentrations during social drinking, and negative consequences all declined by 30% or more among ongoing student-athletes after program exposure. In contrast, no significant differences across time were seen for new student-athletes each year with low program exposure. Among student-athletes with the highest level of program exposure, indications of personal misuse were at least 50% less likely on each measure when compared with student-athletes with the lowest level of program exposure. CONCLUSIONS: This social norms intervention was highly effective in reducing alcohol misuse in this high-risk collegiate subpopulation by intensively delivering data-based messages about actual peer norms through multiple communication venues.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Classification of body shape of male athletes by factor analysis.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the body shape of athletes in comparison with adult non-athletes by factor analysis. The subjects were 210 male adult non-athletes and 485 male high school age and adult athletes participating in 13 different sporting events. Physique, skinfold thickness and body composition of each subject were measured. Measured values from adult non-athletes were analyzed by factor analysis, and body shape of the athletes was then analyzed according to these factors. The results are summarized as follows: 1. Four main factors, that is, body fat, mass, leg length to height ratio and length, which could explain 88.5 percent of total variance, were extracted from the measured values from adult non-athletes. 2. Similarity of body shape between sporting events was analyzed by cluster analysis. Body shape of the athletes could be classified into 3 categories: muscular and well-balanced type; rich muscular and large-built type; and rich muscular and long-torso type. Compared with adult non-athletes, male athletes had less body fat and greater mass except for long-distance runners. The present results suggested that the athletes had body shapes suitable to their sporting events.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Drug education and the college athlete: evaluation of a decision-making model.

In general there is a lack of information describing the components and structure of drug education and prevention programs (DEPP) for college student athletes. While concern about the prevalence of drug abuse among college student athletes has increased, a relative lack of clarity remains regarding what elements of drug education prevention programs have been successful or unsuccessful in this setting. In an effort to address this issue at Oregon State University a two-credit ten-week DEPP was implemented as a requirement for all collegiate athletes. This article describes the evaluation of this program. Altogether 635 student athletes from three National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division One universities provided data in this two-year evaluation project. Participants were student athletes from Oregon State University (OSU), a Mid-Western University (MWU), and another Pacific North-Western University (PNWU). Pre- and post-test data were collected regarding knowledge about drugs, attitudes toward drug use, drug use, and decision-making factors. Students at OSU and MWU were enrolled in a structured DEPP, and the third group from PNWU was used as a control and did not receive regular instruction. The baseline data taken before the drug education course indicated that athletes at OSU, MWU, and PNWU were no different in their knowledge of drugs, attitudes toward drugs, or perception of the value of drug education in preventing drug abuse among student athletes. However, the data at the end of the ten-week course revealed many significant improvements among OSU and MWU students athletes, in knowledge, attitude related to performance enhancing drugs and recreational drugs, and perceptions of drug education. At the end of the course 88 percent of the participating OSU athletes agreed that drug education can be effective in preventing drug abuse among student athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Tobacco use among high school athletes and nonatieletes: results of the 1997 youth risk behavior survey.

In the United States today, the use of tobacco has become an entrenched part of teenage culture. The present study used the 1997 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), which collected data from a nationally representative sample of 16,262 students in public and private high schools, to compare the tobacco use patterns of athletes and nonathletes. The independent variable, athletic participation, differentiated between moderately involved (1 or 2 teams) and highly involved (3 or more teams) athletes. Frequency of cigarette and cigar smoking and smokeless tobacco use served as the operational measure of tobacco use. Age, race/ethnicity, parental education, and residence were controlled. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios for female and male athletes and nonathletes for each of the tobacco use variables. It was found that both male and female athletes were less likely to have ever smoked regularly, the effect being stronger for more highly involved athletes of both genders. Cigar smoking was unrelated to athlete status. Both female and male athletes were more likely to have used smokeless tobacco, the effect being stronger for more highly involved athletes of both genders. The findings are discussed in terms of access to health information, performance considerations, social status factors, the salience of an athletic identity, and the influence of the athletic subculture on its members.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Sudden Cardiac Arrest in Athletic Medicine.

OBJECTIVE: To emphasize the importance of decreasing the response time by a trained target responder to increase the survival rate among athletes experiencing sudden cardiac arrest at an athletic event. BACKGROUND: Death due to sudden cardiac arrest that is witnessed is preventable in many cases. However, most people who experience this condition die because of a prolonged response time from onset of the fatal arrhythmia to defibrillation by trained treatment providers. If athletic trainers or other members of the athletic care medical team are trained as target responders and equipped with automated electronic defibrillators, they can immediately treat an athlete who experiences a sudden, life-threatening tachyarrhythmia. This prompt response to the life-threatening emergency should result in a higher survival rate. DESCRIPTION: We review the causes of sudden cardiac arrest during athletic events, note some unusual clinical presentations, discuss improved methods of response and new equipment for treatment, and define the athletic trainer's role as a target responder trained to treat people experiencing sudden cardiac arrest at an athletic event. CLINICAL ADVANTAGES: An athletic care team willing to become part of an emergency response team can help improve the survival rate of athletes experiencing sudden cardiac arrest at an athletic event.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

Self-Perceived Continuing Education Needs of Certified Athletic Trainers.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the self-perceived continuing education needs of current certified athletic trainers and the factors that affect those needs. DESIGN AND SETTING: Self-reporting surveys using a Likert-type scale were sent to 2000 certified athletic trainers. SUBJECTS: All subjects were certified athletic trainers working in the United States. MEASUREMENTS: A 3-part survey of continuing education participation, continuing education needs, and demographic data was developed. Continuing education items were based on the domains of athletic training as defined by the Athletic Training Role Delineation Study, 3rd edition. RESULTS: The response rate was 52% (1040/2000). Athletic trainers in this study perceived "some to moderate need" for continuing education within each of the domains. Rehabilitation of Athletic Injuries (domain 3) was the area in which athletic trainers saw the most need for continuing education. The back and neck were specific anatomical areas perceived by the athletic trainers as needing the highest level of continuing education. Sex was a significant factor in the perceived importance of continuing education within all but domain 5, Professional Development and Responsibility. Other factors included employment setting and years of experience. CONCLUSIONS: Athletic trainers in this study perceived each of the tasks within the domains to be at least "somewhat important," with rehabilitation and specific continuing education programs for the back and neck being the most important. Sex, employment setting, and years of experience may influence what athletic trainers think is important. Therefore, continuing education providers should attempt to vary programs and tailor them to various audiences.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

Life-Stress Sources and Symptoms of Collegiate Student Athletic Trainers Over the Course of an Academic Year.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of life-stress sources that student athletic trainers encountered over the course of an academic year, to investigate the existence of sex differences in stress source symptoms, and to provide athletic training staffs with suggestions on ways to assist student athletic trainers. DESIGN AND SETTING: In a classroom setting, the 25-item Quick Stress Questionnaire (QSQ) was administered to all subjects at the beginning of each month during an academic year. The QSQ, which can be completed in approximately 5 minutes, uses a 9-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (little stress) to 9 (extreme stress) to measure sources of stress and stress-related symptoms. SUBJECTS: The sample consisted of 11 male and 9 female student athletic trainers enrolled in a Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP)-accredited undergraduate program at a mid-Atlantic university. MEASUREMENTS: We computed descriptive statistics for the stress items and symptoms (ie, cognitive, somatic, and behavioral) and graphed them according to sex. Separate sex x time analyses of variance were performed to investigate changes in cognitive, somatic, and behavioral stress over the course of the study and to determine if these changes were different for male and female student athletic trainers. RESULTS: Academic and financial concerns represented the greatest sources of stress for student athletic trainers. Repeated-measures analyses of variance indicated that stress levels fluctuated significantly during the academic year, with peak stress levels experienced during midterm and at the end of the spring semester. Although female student athletic trainers consistently reported higher levels of stress than their male counterparts, these differences were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Student athletic trainers exhibited fluctuations in their stress levels throughout an academic calendar. Academic and financial concerns were the most common stressors. Certified athletic trainers should take an interest in their student athletic trainers and be willing to provide assistance in times of need. Additional research is needed regarding student athletic trainers and stress.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

Pedagogic Strategies Perceived to Enhance Student Learning in Athletic Training Education.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate students' and instructors' educational experiences in Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP)-accredited athletic training education programs and specifically to determine to what extent pedagogic strategies were reflected in students' perceptions of their learning experiences, instructors' perceptions of their teaching, and athletic training course syllabi. DESIGN AND SETTING: Students and instructors currently enrolled in or teaching in 5 university athletic training programs accredited by CAAHEP provided in-depth interviews pertaining to students' educational experiences. Students' educational experiences in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training programs were also examined through current athletic training education course syllabi. SUBJECTS: Twenty-one students (9 males, 12 females) and 12 instructors (7 males, 5 females) were interviewed to examine their perceptions of teaching and learning experiences within their program. MEASUREMENTS: Students' and instructors' perceptions of their educational experiences in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training education programs were analyzed qualitatively using the data-analysis software program NUD*IST. Data from all 3 sources (students' interviews, instructors' interviews, course syllabi) were coded into categories within the NUD*IST program and then triangulated to ensure the authenticity of the findings. RESULTS: Based on the analysis of students' and instructors' interviews and course syllabi, 3 pedagogic strategies were identified that appeared to facilitate athletic training education in CAAHEP-accredited programs: use of scenarios and case studies, authentic experiences, and a positive educational environment. CONCLUSIONS: Students and instructors in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training education programs recognize and value specific pedagogic theories of teaching and learning and achievement motivation in students' educational experiences. Specific educational themes identified across athletic training instructors, students, and programs are outlined. All athletic training educators should take an interest in understanding what students and instructors in CAAHEP-accredited athletic training programs view as helpful pedagogic practices within their educational experiences.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

An Assessment of Athletic Training Students' Clinical-Placement Hours.

OBJECTIVE: To establish a time profile to determine how athletic training students use their time in clinical placements and to determine the effects of academic standing, sex, sport type, and risk of injury associated with a sport during athletic training students' clinical placements on instructional, clinical, unengaged, managerial, and active learning time. DESIGN AND SETTING: Subjects were enrolled in clinical placements within National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletics, intramural sports, and a local high school. Students were individually videotaped for approximately 4 hours. SUBJECTS: A total of 20 undergraduate athletic training students (17 women, 3 men) from a Committee on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP)-accredited athletic training education program. MEASUREMENTS: We created a conceptual behavioral time framework to examine athletic training students' use of clinical-placement time with the performance domains associated with the 1999 National Athletic Trainers' Association Board of Certification Role Delineation Study. Students' use of time was analyzed with the Behavior Evaluation Strategies and Taxonomies software. RESULTS: Students spent 7% of their overall clinical-placement time in instructional activities, 23% in clinical activities, 10% in managerial activities, and 59% in unengaged activities. Using multiple 3 x 3 factorial analyses of variance, we found that advanced students were engaged in significantly more active learning and clinical time compared with novice and intermediate students. Students assigned to sports in which injuries predominately occur in the upper extremities (upper extremity sports) spent significantly more clinical-placement time unengaged compared with students assigned to sports in which injuries predominantly occur in the lower extremities (lower extremity sports) or in both upper and lower extremities (mixed extremity sports). CONCLUSIONS: In this exploratory study, we examined only the clinical-placement component of 1 athletic training program; therefore, it may not be accurate to generalize the results for all CAAHEP-accredited programs. However, these results can be used by athletic training educators to examine the amount of time students are actually engaged in specific domains of athletic training, to determine the domains in which skills are most commonly being performed, to identify the relationships between the students and clinical instructors or supervisors, and to develop clinical placements in which students learn and practice clinical and educational competencies.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1995

A Disordered Eating Response Team's Effect on Nutrition Practices in College Athletes.

The disordered eating response team developed a protocol for assessment and intervention for athletes who are identified as at risk for disordered eating. Team members included the team physician, athletic trainers, a dietitian with knowledge of sports nutrition, and a psychologist. Team members also developed education programs for coaches and athletic trainers, athletes, and dining services personnel regarding eating to support health and athletic performance. During the first year of the program, 12 athletes were referred to the disordered eating program. Evaluations from the education programs indicated that they were well received by all participants. Information considered to be most useful by the athletes included: high-carbohydrate vs high-fat foods (98%), timing of food intake (88%), and fluid needs (68%). Topics about which the athletes requested more information included: increasing lean body mass (70%) and foods to eat while traveling (55%). In response to the program(s), the athletes reported increasing intake of carbohydrate foods (100%), decreasing intake of caffeine-containing beverages (68%), and increasing dietary intake of iron and calcium (78% females). Our programs have improved athletes' knowledge of nutrition to support health and performance and have provided intervention for athletes at risk for disordered eating.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

Awareness and identification of athletes with sickle cell disorders at historically black colleges and universities.

OBJECTIVE: Information regarding the incidence or complica- tions of sickle cell disorders in athletes has not been well reported in the literature. In this study we identify the amount of exposure that athletic trainers have to athletes with sickle cell disorders at historically black colleges and universities and describe the precautions, screening procedures, and treatment techniques used to identify and manage this population. DESIGN AND SETTING: A 12-question survey was mailed to head athletic trainers asking about their exposure to athletes with sickle cell disorders. SUBJECTS: Athletic trainers at 94 historically black colleges and universities. MEASUREMENTS: Descriptive data were compiled as frequen- cies and reported as a percentage of the total responses (n = 34). The data were also grouped by NCAA division or as non-NCAA member institutions. RESULTS: Of the 94 surveys, 34 (36%) were returned. Respondents reported that 4.9% of their athletes had the genetic trait, yet only 12% of the schools required screening for the trait during their athletic preparticipation examinations. Three of the schools (9%) reported a total of 10 incidents of athletes having sickle cell crises at their facilities. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that there is a likelihood for athletic trainers to encounter athletes with sickle cell disorders. Further education regarding sickle cell disorders may be needed.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in the female athlete.

OBJECTIVE: To discuss the rehabilitation program after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction in the female athlete. In addition, we will discuss 8 unique characteristics identified in the female athlete and specific training drills to address and correct the potentially deleterious effects of these unique characteristics. BACKGROUND: The female athlete appears to be more susceptible to noncontact ACL injuries than the male athlete. There seem to be many differences between the female and male athlete that may contribute to the increased injury rate in the female athlete. These variations include anatomical and neuromuscular considerations and differences. DESCRIPTION: Based on the unique characteristics of the female athlete and the anatomical and neuromuscular dissimilarities, a specially designed rehabilitation program has been established for the female athlete after ACL surgery. CLINICAL ADVANTAGES: The rehabilitation drills discussed in this article challenge the neuromuscular system through proprioception, kinesthesia, dynamic joint stability, neuromuscular control, and perturbation training activities. Improving the female athlete's neuromuscular system will, we believe, expedite the injured athlete's recovery after ACL injury or surgery. Although the concepts discussed are part of a postoperative rehabilitation program after ACL surgery, these concepts may also be implemented as a preventive program to assist in reducing the incidence of ACL injuries in the female athlete.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Inguinal surgery for debilitating chronic groin pain in athletes.

OBJECTIVES: To identify and surgically treat correctable inguinal injuries in athletes with chronic groin pain and to assess the results of surgical treatment. DESIGN: Sixty-four athletes presented between March 1987 and January 1990 for treatment of chronic groin pain in which surgical exploration of the inguinal canal was considered necessary. Follow-up was performed by questionnaire. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Patient self-assessment of the success of the operation, including postoperative pain, ability to return to active sport and any further treatment required. RESULTS: Sixty-four athletes were treated, Australian Rules footballers predominated (46/64, 72%). Eight athletes had bilateral groin pain. Fifty-nine (92%) reported an incipient onset of pain. The most common operative finding was of a substantially deranged posterior wall of the inguinal canal which was evident in 61/72 instances (85%). Apparent splitting of the conjoint tendon was found in 19 instances (26%) and previously occult indirect inguinal hernias were discovered in six (8%). Repair of the posterior wall of the inguinal canal was by the standard Bassini repair and Tanner slide or by plication of the transversalis fascia followed by a nylon darn. Follow-up by questionnaire of the 64 athletes revealed that 40 athletes (62.5%) considered themselves cured and had returned to competitive sport. Twenty athletes (31.3%) were partially satisfied with the results of their operation, and also able to return to active sport. Three athletes (4.7%) were dissatisfied with the operative result. One patient was lost to follow-up. CONCLUSION: The most common finding in athletes with chronic groin pain was a deficiency of the posterior wall of the inguinal canal. Surgical exploration and repair of the posterior wall of the inguinal canal in athletes with chronic debilitating groin pain achieved excellent or good relief of pain in 93.8% of athletes and improved physical performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

[Menstrual characteristics in college athletes].

This study investigated the influences of endurance physical exercise on menstrual characteristics in college athletes. 311 college students at the University of Tsukuba (174: college athletes, 137: non-athletes, control students (group C) ) completed questionnaires which inquired about their menstrual history. College athletes were divided into two groups with hard physical activity (group A) and moderate physical activity (group B). The physical profile showed that group A and B had a lower total body water/body weight ratio than group C. The incidences of prolonged menstruation and hypomenorrhea of athletes were higher than those of non-athletes. There was no significant difference in the incidence of dysmenorrhea. However, the incidence of cases which required the medication to treat dysmenorrhea was lower in athletes than in non-athletes. Regarding the menstrual cycle, there was no significant difference in the incidence of oligomenorrhea and polymenorrhea in the three groups. On the other hand, the incidence of irregular menstrual cycles in group A was significantly higher than in group C. Athletes replied that the period of good physical condition during the menstrual cycles occurred in the late follicular and ovulatory phase. On the other hand, the period of bad condition was in the late luteal phase and during the menstrual period. Only 21.4% of athletes desire to regulate the menstrual cycle according to their sports schedule. The specialized physician should be more concerned either about managing the athletes who are suffering from menstrual dysfunction or about establishing a way to control the menstrual cycle.

Adolescent↗