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PubMed1997

Effect of swimming training on antioxidant enzymes in kidney of young and old mice.

The current study was undertaken to investigate the effect of swimming training on the antioxidant enzyme system in kidney of young and old mice. Both young and old mice, aged 2 and 26 months old, respectively, were divided into the sedentary and swimming-trained groups. The trained mice underwent a 6-week swimming program (1 h/day, 5 days/week) in water at 35-36 degrees C. Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD) activity was significantly decreased with aging but was not influenced by swimming training, such changes being similar to those noted for catalase activity rather than for glutathione peroxidase activity. After swimming training Mn-SOD activity increased significantly only in old mice but was unaffected by aging. Although neither aging nor swimming training had overt effect on the expression of Cu,Zn-SOD mRNA, the immunoreactive Cu,Zn-SOD content in young mice decreased significantly after the training. Meanwhile, Mn-SOD mRNA expression in old mice was reduced by half after swimming training, accompanied by a significant decrease in its immunoreactive content; unexpectedly, however, Mn-SOD content in young mice did not parallel its mRNA expression. These findings suggest that the antioxidant enzyme system in mouse kidney trends to be down-regulated with aging, and that swimming training fails to attenuate such reduced levels of the antioxidant enzymes.

Aging↗
PubMed1998

Blood and breath analyses as biological indicators of exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools.

In this article, exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in indoor swimming pools as a consequence of water chlorination is reported. Environmental and biological monitoring of THMs was performed in order to assess the uptake of these substances after a defined period in five competitive swimmers, regularly attending an indoor swimming pool to train for competition during four sampling sessions. Analyses were performed by gas-chromatography and the following THMs were detected: chloroform (CHC13), bromodichloromethane (CHBrC12), dibromochloromethane (CHBrsC1) and bromoform (CHBr3). CHC13 appeared the most represented compound both in water and in environmental air before and after swimming. CHBrC1w and CHBr2C1 were always present, even though at lower levels than CHC13, CHBr3, was rarely present. In relation to biological monitoring, CHC13, CHBrC12 and CHBr2C1 were detected in all alveolar air samples collected inside the swimming pool. Before swimming, after 1 h at rest at the pool edge, the mean values were 29.4 +/- 13.3, 2.7 +/- 1.2 and 0.8 +/- 0.8 micrograms/m3, respectively, while after spending 1 h swimming, higher levels were detected (75.6 +/- 18.6, 6.5 +/- 1.3 and 1.4 +/- 0.9 micrograms/m3, respectively). Only CHC13 was detected in all plasma samples (mean: 1.4 +/- 0.5 micrograms/1) while CHBrC1x and CHBr2C1 were observed only in few samples at a detection limit of 0.1 micrograms/1. After 1 h at rest, at an average environmental exposure of approx. 100 micrograms/m3, the THM uptake was approx. 30 micrograms/h (26 micrograms/h for CHC1c, 3 micrograms/h for CHBrC12 and 1.5 micrograms/h for CHBr2C1). After 1 h swimming, the THM uptake is approx. seven times higher than at rest: a THM mean uptake of 221 micrograms/h (177 micrograms/h, 26 micrograms/h and 18 micrograms/h for CHC13, CHBrC12 and CHBr2C1, respectively) was evaluated at an environmental concentration of approx. 200 micrograms/m3.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Swimming in chlorinated water and its effect on Eustachian tube function.

Middle-ear effusion in children is considered to be the result of multiple factors. Swimming in chlorinated water has been incriminated as one such possible aetiological factor. To test the hypothesis that the chemical disinfectant in the swimming pool is probably responsible for the Eustachian tube dysfunction, 30 children between the ages of four and eight years were selected at random from the community health department computer records and were randomly allocated into two groups. Eustachian tube function was assessed by standard tympanometry both immediately prior to swimming (control) and 30 to 45 minutes following swimming in Group 1 and approximately 14 hours following swimming in Group 2. The results of the study showed no significant change (p greater than 0.05) between pre- and post-swimming tympanometry. It is therefore concluded that swimming on the surface of chlorinated water does not compromise the Eustachian tube function in children with healthy middle ears.

Acoustic Impedance Tests↗
PubMed2002

Swimming and birth weight.

BACKGROUND: Swimmers can be exposed to high levels of trihalomethanes, byproducts of chlorination disinfection. There are no published studies on the relation between swimming and birth weight. We explored this relation in a large birth cohort, the Avon (England) Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), in 1991-1992. METHODS: Information on the amount of swimming per week during the first 18-20 weeks of pregnancy was available for 11,462 pregnant women. Fifty-nine percent never swam, 31% swam up to 1 hour per week, and 10% swam for longer. We used linear regression to explore the relation between birth weight and the amount of swimming, with adjustment for gestational age, maternal age, parity, maternal education level, ethnicity, housing tenure, drug use, smoking and alcohol consumption. RESULTS: We found little effect of the amount of swimming on birth weight. More highly educated women were more likely to swim compared with less educated women, whereas smokers were less likely to swim compared with nonsmokers. CONCLUSIONS: There appears to be no relation between the duration of swimming and birth weight.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

[Swimming pool accidents in Denmark].

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this article was to estimate injuries in connection with swimming pool activities. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Through The Register of Accidents of The State Institute of Public Health, data of injuries in swimming pools were collected for the period 1998-1999. In that period of time the NOMESKO-classification was used for registration of injuries, a specific classification based on registration of injuries at five different Danish hospitals corresponding to 14% of the Danish population. RESULTS: During the period of investigation the average number of injuries was 349 per year, corresponding to a rate of incidence of 49.9 per 100,000. There was a considerable dominance of the youngest age groups among the injured. The age group 0-14 years accounted for 60% of the injured. The dominant type of injury was simple fall. The type of lesions varied according to the age of the injured. DISCUSSION: There was an insignificant increase from 1998 to 1999. Due to a presumed difference in iatrotropic threshold there was probably a bias of selection. The number of injuries corresponded to a total of 2500 injuries in Danish swimming pools per year, corresponding to 1 injury per 10,000 persons using Danish swimming pools. There were no comparable studies, neither Danish nor foreign. In Danish swimming pools no recommendations were available, only what we call advice on how to conduct oneself in the pool area. It would probably be possible to reduce the number of injuries in Danish swimming pools by using preventive steps, for instance non-skid mats, ban on running and elimination of sharp and hard objects in swimming pools.

Accidents↗
PubMed1997

A kinematic comparison of L-DOPA-induced air-stepping and swimming in developing rats.

In Experiment 1, rats of 5, 10, 15, and 20 days of age were injected with L-DOPA to elicit stepping and videotaped while suspended in air and in warm water. Inter- and intralimb coordination were similar for L-DOPA-induced air-stepping and swimming at all ages. Other parameters of locomotion, such as step length and step rate, varied by substrate. In Experiment 2, pups of 5 to 20 days of age received an injection of L-DOPA or the vehicle and were videotaped while freely swimming. L-DOPA-induced free swimming was more stereotyped and "automatonlike" than that of vehicle-injected animals. Through 15 days of age, all pups swam using all four limbs, but L-DOPA induced stricter synchrony of movement in diagonal limbs than was used by pups injected with the vehicle. At postnatal Day 20, vehicle-injected pups adopted the adult swimming pattern in which only the hindlimbs were used, whereas L-DOPA-injected pups continued to use the immature pattern, diagonal progression with all four limbs. These results suggest that L-DOPA-induced air-stepping and swimming are manifestations of the same central mechanisms and that parameters of L-DOPA-induced stepping are modified by the sensory and/or biomechanical effects of the substrate. Although the free swimming of L-DOPA-injected pups was kinematically similar to vehicle-treated pups, L-DOPA retarded transition to the adult swimming pattern.

Aging↗
PubMed2004

Nitric oxide regulates swimming in the jellyfish Aglantha digitale.

The cnidarian nervous system is considered by many to represent neuronal organization in its earliest and simplest form. Here we demonstrate, for the first time in the Cnidaria, the neuronal localization of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the hydromedusa Aglantha digitale (Trachylina). Expression of specific, fixative-resistant NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) activity, characteristic of NOS, was observed in neurites running in the outer nerve ring at the base of the animal and in putative sensory cells in the ectoderm covering its tentacles. At both sites, diphenyleneiodonium (10(-4) M) abolished staining. Capillary electrophoresis confirmed that the NO breakdown products NO2- and NO3- were present at high levels in the tentacles, but were not detectable in NADPH-d-negative areas. The NADPH-d-reactive neurons in the tentacles send processes to regions adjacent to the inner nerve ring where swimming pacemaker cells are located. Free-moving animals and semi-intact preparations were used to test whether NO is involved in regulating the swimming program. NO (30-50 nM) and its precursor L-arginine (1 mM) stimulated swimming, and the effect was mimicked by 8-Br-cGMP (50-100 microM). The NO scavenger PTIO (10-100 microM) and a competitive inhibitor of NOS, L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 200 microM), significantly decreased the swimming frequency in free-moving animals, while its less-active stereoisomer D-nitroarginine methyl ester (D-NAME, 200 microM) had no such effect. 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxaline-1-one (ODQ, 5-20 microM), a selective inhibitor of soluble guanylyl cyclase, suppressed spontaneous swimming and prevented NO-induced activation of the swimming program. We suggest that an NO/cGMP signaling pathway modulates the rhythmic swimming associated with feeding in Aglantha, possibly by means of putative nitrergic sensory neurons in its tentacles.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Pineal sensitivity to nighttime swimming stress changes during the active season in Richardson's ground squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii).

Melatonin synthesis in the pineal gland, which is primarily regulated by the environmental lighting regime, can also be influenced by other factors that elicit modifications in sympathetic tone. The objectives of this study were to determine if forced swimming alters the normal pattern of melatonin production in the pineal gland of the Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii). In early June, the squirrels were forced to swim for 10 min during the photophase or during the scotophase. In mid-July squirrels swam only during the scotophase. Animals were sacrificed 15, 30, or 60 min after the onset of swimming. Activities of pineal N-acetyltransferase (NAT) and hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase (HIOMT) were assessed by radioenzyme assay, and pineal melatonin content was measured by radioimmunoassay. Daytime swimming elicited no major changes in enzyme activity or pineal melatonin. In June, swimming at night prevented the normal rises in NAT activity and pineal melatonin seen in nonswimming controls. In contrast, the pineals of squirrels that were tested 6 weeks later in mid-July did not appear to be as sensitive to nighttime swimming, as there were only minor differences in both NAT activity and melatonin content compared to controls. These results demonstrate that forced nighttime swimming, unlike several other aversive stimuli, can evoke changes in the normal pattern of pineal melatonin production in this species. Furthermore, the pineal's response to such stimuli may not be stable over the course of the active season.

Acetylserotonin O-Methyltransferase↗
PubMed1995

Age-related changes in plasma catecholamine responses to acute swim stress.

Young adult (3 months) and aged (22 months) Fischer 344 male rats were prepared with chronic tail artery catheters. Three days after surgery, rats were exposed acutely to swim stress at 20, 25, 30, or 35 degrees C for 15 min. Blood samples were obtained from each rat under basal conditions, at the end of the swim stress episode, and 15, 30, and 45 min after swim stress. Basal plasma levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine (EPI) were similar for 3- and 22-month-old rats. In contrast, plasma catecholamine responses of aged rats were significantly greater than those of young adult rats following swim stress at 20 and 25 degrees C. Plasma catecholamine responses were similar for rats of the two ages following swim stress at 30 or 35 degrees C. These findings indicate that aged rats have exaggerated sympathetic-adrenal medullary responses to acute swim stress at the lower water temperatures. Given the modulatory effects of plasma EPI on memory, these age-related alterations in plasma catecholamine responses to acute swim stress may influence spatial memory performance of rats in the Morris water maze.

Aging↗
PubMed2000

Decreased body temperature dependent appearance of behavioral despair in the forced swimming test in mice.

Effects of body temperature on the immobile response and brain glucose metabolism were examined in the forced swimming test in mice. The first experiment was performed to study behavior, after initial periods of vigorous activity, a characteristic immobile posture occurred when the water was 25 and 35 degrees C. However, several minutes after forced swimming at 25 degrees C, significantly decreased spontaneous motility occurred in a time-dependent manner, but no changes was observed at 35 degrees C. Our interpretation was that mechanisms of acquisition and retention of the forced swim-induced immobile response differed. Body temperature was also significantly decreased at 25 degrees C but not at 35 degrees C in the forced swimming test. This lowering of body temperature almost paralleled the immobile response. The second experiment was a biochemical study in which the uptake of [(14)C] 2-deoxy-d-glucose into the brain significantly decreased after forced swimming at 25 degrees C but did not change in the forced swim loaded mice when the water was 35 degrees C. These results suggested two types of immobile mechanisms in the forced swimming test: (1) an early phase acquisition of the immobile response which might be related to adaptive response and (2) a late phase to retain the immobile response which might be related to the decrease in brain glucose metabolism.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Modulation of swimming behavior in the medicinal leech. III. Control of cellular properties in motor neurons by serotonin.

Expression of swimming in the medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is modulated by serotonin, a naturally occurring neurohormone. Exogenous application of serotonin engenders 'spontaneous' swimming activity in nerve-cord preparations. We examined whether this activity is due to enhanced participation of swim motor neurons (MNs) in generating the swimming rhythm. We found that depolarizing current injections into MNs during fictive swimming are more effective in shifting cycle phase in nerve cords following serotonin exposure. In such preparations, the dynamics of membrane potential excursions following current injection into neuronal somata are substantially altered. We observed: 1) a delayed outward rectification ('relaxation') during depolarizing current injection, most marked in inhibitory MNs; and 2) in excitor MNs, an enhancement of postinhibitory rebound (PIR) and afterhyperpolarizing potentials (AHPs) following hyperpolarizing and depolarizing current pulses, respectively. In contrast, we found little alteration in MN properties in leech nerve cords depleted of amines. We propose that enhanced expression of swimming activity in leeches exposed to elevated serotonin is due, partly, to enhancement of relaxation, PIR and AHP in MNs. We believe that as a consequence of alterations in cellular properties and synaptic interactions (subsequent paper) by serotonin, MNs are reconfigured to more effectively participate in generating and expressing the leech swimming rhythm.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Determination and validity of critical velocity as an index of swimming performance in the competitive swimmer.

The purpose of this investigation was to test whether the concept of critical power used in previous studies could be applied to the field of competitive swimming as critical swimming velocity (vcrit). The vcrit, defined as the swimming velocity over a very long period of time without exhaustion, was expressed as the slope of a straight line between swimming distance (dlim) at each speed (with six predetermined speeds) and the duration (tlim). Nine trained college swimmers underwent tests in a swimming flume to measure vcrit at those velocities until the onset of fatigue. A regression analysis of dlim on tlim calculated for each swimmer showed linear relationships (r2 greater than 0.998, P less than 0.01), and the slope coefficient signifying vcrit ranged from 1.062 to 1.262 m.s-1 with a mean of 1.166 (SD 0.052) m.s-1. Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), oxygen consumption (VO2) at anaerobic threshold, and the swimming also velocity at the onset of blood lactate accumulation (vOBLA) were also determined during the incremental swimming test. The vcrit showed significant positive correlations with VO2 at anaerobic threshold (r = 0.818, P less than 0.01), vOBLA (r = 0.949, P less than 0.01) and mean velocity of 400 m freestyle (r = 0.864, P less than 0.01). These data suggested that vcrit could be adopted as an index of endurance performance in competitive swimmers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Plasma renin activity, aldosterone and catecholamine levels when swimming and running.

The purpose of this study was to determine the response of plasma renin activity (PRA), plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC) and catecholamines to two graded exercises differing by posture. Seven male subjects (19-25 years) performed successively a running rest on a treadmill and a swimming test in a 50-m swimming pool. Each exercise was increased in severity in 5-min steps with intervals of 1 min. Oxygen consumption, heart rate and blood lactate, measured every 5 min, showed a similar progression in energy expenditure until exhaustion, but there was a shorter time to exhaustion in the last step of the running test. PRA, PAC and catecholamines were increased after both types of exercise. The PRA increase was higher after the running test (20.9 ng AngI X ml-1 X h-1) than after swimming (8.66 ng AngI X ml-1 X h-1). The PAC increase was slightly greater after running (123 pg X ml-1) than swimming (102 pg X ml-1), buth the difference was not significant. Plasma catecholamine was higher after the swimming test. These results suggest that the volume shift induced by the supine position and water pressure during swimming decreased the PRA response. The association after swimming compared to running of a decreased PRA and an enhanced catecholamine response rule out a strict dependence of renin release under the effect of plasma catecholamines and is evidence of the major role of neural pathways for renin secretion during physical exercise.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Scopolamine blocks the effects of swim stress on memory retrieval in rats.

This study examined whether application of swim stress improved retrieval of a passive avoidance memory and if pretreatment with the anticholinergic agent, scopolamine, blocked this effect on memory retrieval. Animals initially given a passive avoidance training session were subjected to either a two or four swim stress sessions (15 min each) with or without prior treatment of scopolamine (0.05 or 0.1 mg/kg). The retrieval performance in passive avoidance test and motor activity was assessed 24 hr after the last swim stress session. In an independent control experiment, the passive avoidance training and test were conducted respectively, 24 and 72 hr after the last of four swim stress sessions with or without prior injection of scopolamine (0.1 mg/kg). The results showed an enhanced performance for the passive avoidance task in rats subjected to four swim stress sessions in both experiments and scopolamine given 30 min prior to each stress session diminished this performance of animals in the passive avoidance test. Two swim stress sessions with or without scopolamine treatment caused no significant effects on the retrieval performance. Also, no significant difference was observed among the groups in motor activity following any of the stress treatments in the open field test. These results, thus suggested for the first time, a relationship among swim stress, cholinergic activity and avoidance memory processes.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Swim stress inhibits 5-HT2A receptor-mediated head twitch behaviour in mice.

RATIONALE: Several studies have shown that swim stress lowers the convulsant potency of different convulsants. The involvement of alpha(2)-()adrenoceptors has been proposed. Drugs active at alpha(2)-adrenoceptors are known to modulate the head twitch response, the behaviour supposedly mediated by 5-HT(2A) receptors. OBJECTIVES: We tested whether swim stress modulates head twitch behaviour in mice and whether alpha(2)-adrenoceptors interfere with this effect. METHODS: The mice were stressed (10 min swimming at 18-19 degrees C), and the head twitch response was produced by 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP, the precursor of serotonin) or by 1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane (DOI, a selective 5-HT(2) receptor agonist) administered IP before or after swimming. Yohimbine (a non-selective alpha(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist), idazoxan (a selective alpha(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist) and diazepam were also used. RESULTS: Swim stress inhibited profoundly the 5-HTP-induced head twitch behaviour in mice. alpha(2)-Adrenoceptor antagonists and diazepam failed to counteract this effect. The head twitch behaviour produced by DOI given before or after stress was also inhibited. Repeatedly stressed mice had only a mild inhibition of the head twitch response. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate that swim stress inhibits, by an alpha(2)-adrenoceptor unrelated mechanism, 5-HT(2A) receptor-mediated head twitch behaviour in mice, suggesting that this effect and the swim stress-induced anticonvulsant effect are produced by two separate and independent mechanisms.

5-Hydroxytryptophan↗
PubMed1999

Serotonergic mediation of the effects of fluoxetine, but not desipramine, in the rat forced swimming test.

RATIONALE: The forced swimming test (FST) is a behavioral test in rodents that predicts the clinical efficacy of many types of antidepressant treatments. Recently, a behavior sampling technique was developed that scores individual response categories, including swimming, climbing and immobility. Although all antidepressant drugs reduce immobility in the FST, at least two distinct active behavioral patterns are produced by pharmacologically selective antidepressant drugs. Serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitors increase swimming behavior, while drugs acting primarily to increase extracellular levels of norepinephrine or dopamine increase climbing behavior. Distinct patterns of active behaviors in the FST may be mediated by distinct neurotransmitters, but this has not been shown directly. OBJECTIVES: The present study examined the role of serotonin in mediating active behaviors in the forced swimming test after treatment with two antidepressant drugs, the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine and the selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, desipramine. METHODS: Endogenous serotonin was depleted by administering para-cholorophenylalanine (PCPA, 150 mg/kg, IP.) to rats 72 h and 48 h prior to the swim test. Fluoxetine (10 mg/kg, SC) or desipramine (10 mg/kg, SC) was given three times over a 24-h period prior to the FST. Behavioral responses, including immobility, swimming and climbing, were counted during the 5-min test. RESULTS: Pretreatment with PCPA blocked fluoxetine-induced reduction in immobility and increase in swimming behavior during the FST. In contrast, PCPA pretreatment did not interfere with the ability of desipramine to reduce immobility and increase climbing behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Depletion of serotonin prevented the behavioral effects of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine in the rat FST. Furthermore, depletion of serotonin had no impact on the behavioral effects induced by the selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, desipramine. The effects of antidepressant drugs on FST-induced immobility may be exerted by distinguishable contributions from different neurotransmitter systems.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Differences in the energy cost between children and adults during front crawl swimming.

There is little information available about the swimming economy of children. The aim of this study was to examine any possible differences in swimming economy in children and adults, swimming front crawl submaximally. Swimming economy was compared in adults [ n=13, aged 21.4 (3.7) years] and children [n=10, aged 11.8 (0.8) years] tested at four submaximal 6-min workloads. Oxygen consumption (VO2) was measured with Douglas bags in a 25-m pool and pacer lights were used to control the velocities. Swimming economy was scaled to body size using mass (BM), body surface area (BSA) and body length (BL). Children had lower VO2 (litres per minute) at a given velocity than the adults, with 1.86 (0.28) and 2.39 (0.20) l min(-1) respectively (at 1.00 m s(-1)). When scaling for size, children had higher VO2 measured in litres per square metre per minute and millilitres per kilogram per minute (divided by BSA and BM) than adults. The VO2 divided by BL was found not to differ between the two groups. The O2 cost of swimming 1 m at a velocity of 1.00 m s(-1) was lower in the children [31.0 (4.6) ml m(-1)] than in the adults [39.9 (3.3) ml m(-1) P<0.01], probably due to a lower total drag in the children. The results also showed that for children a relationship between swimming velocity cubed and VO2 exists as shown earlier for adults. It is concluded that, when scaling for BSA and BM, children are less economical than adults, when scaling for BL, children are equally economical, and when considering energy cost per metre and absolute VO2, children are more economical than the adults.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Performance and physiological responses to a 5-week synchronized swimming technical training programme in humans.

A synchronized swimming team routine (TR) is composed of figures of varying degrees of difficulty. Swimmers able to perform these figures separately underwent a 5-week technical training programme (TTP) to assemble a TR. Little is known about the physiological responses to this kind of TTP. A group of 13 trained synchronized swimmers [mean age 14 (SD 1) years] were tested before and after a 5-week TTP. The TR lasted 5 min, and 45% of that time was spent underwater. The swimmers' technique scores in the TR improved significantly from 4.5 (SD 1.9) before to 5.8 (SD 2.3) points after the TTP (P < 0.01), but their swimming performances, peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), blood lactate concentration, and heart rate measured during a 400-m swim were lower after the TTP. The improvement in the technique scores correlated negatively with the change in VO2peak (r = -0.57; P < 0.05). The greater the improvement in the technique score, the greater the decrease in VO2peak. The overall synchronized swimming skill was assessed by the best score the swimmers obtained in four to six competitions over a season. This score was related to the 400-m swimming performance, VO2peak, maximal distance covered in apnoea, and the breath-hold time. The 5-week TTP therefore improved technical performance during the TR without improving physiological, swimming or apnoea performances. However, the physiological profile of each swimmer was linked to the synchronized swimming skill.

Adolescent↗