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PubMed2000

Preparation, X-ray crystal structure determination, lattice potential energy, and energetics of formation of the salt S4(AsF6)2.AsF3 containing the lattice-stabilized tetrasulfur [2+] cation. Implications for the understanding of the stability of M(4)2+ and M2+ (M = S, Se, and Te) crystalline salts.

S4(AsF6)2.AsF3 was prepared by the reaction of sulfur with arsenic pentafluroide in liquid AsF3 (quantitatively) and in anhydrous HF in the presence of trace amounts of bromine. A single-crystal X-ray structure of the compound has been determined: monoclinic, space group P2(1)/c, Z = 4, a = 7.886(1) A, b = 9.261(2) A, c = 19.191(3) A, beta = 92.82(1) degrees, V = 1399.9(4) A3, T = 293 K, R1 = 0.052 for 1563 reflections (I > 2 sigma (I) 1580 total and 235 parameters). We report a term-by-term calculation of the lattice potential energy of this salt and also use our generalized equation, which estimates lattice energies to assist in probing the homopolyatomic cation thermochemistry in the solid and the gaseous states. We find S4(AsF6)2.AsF3 to be more stable (delta fH degree [S4(AsF6)2.AsF3,c] approximately -4050 +/- 105 kJ/mol) than either the unsolvated S4(AsF6)2 (delta fH degree [S4(AsF6)2,c] approximately -3104 +/- 117 kJ/mol) by 144 kJ/mol or two moles of S2AsF6 (c) and AsF3 (1) by 362 kJ/mol. The greater stability of the S(4)2+ salt arises because of the greater lattice potential energy of the 1:2 solvated salt (1734 kJ/mol) relative to twice that of the 1:1 salt (2 x 541 = 1082 kJ/mol). The relative lattice stabilization enthalpies of M(4)2+ ions relative to two M2+ ions (i.e., in M4(AsF6)2 (c) with respect to two M2AsF6 (c) (M = S, Se, and Te)) are found to be 218, 289, and 365 kJ/mol, respectively. Evaluation of the thermodynamic data implies that appropriate presently available anions are unlikely to stabilize M2+ in the solid phase. A revised value for delta fH degree [Se4(AsF6)2,c] = -3182 +/- 106 kJ/mol is proposed based on estimates of the lattice energy of Se4(AsF6)2 (c) and a previously calculated gasphase dimerization energy of 2Se2+ to Se(4)2+.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Nucleophilic Vinylic Substitutions of (Z)-(beta-Haloalkenyl)phenyliodonium Salts with Sodium Benzenesulfinate: First Evidence of a Michael Addition of Nucleophiles to Alkenyliodonium Salts at the C(beta) Atom.

Evidence for a Michael addition of a nucleophile to alkenyl(phenyl)iodonium salts at the C(beta) atom is reported here for the first time. Nucleophilic vinylic substitutions of (Z)-(beta-chloroalkenyl)- 2b and (Z)-(beta-bromoalkenyl)iodonium tetrafluoroborates 3b with sodium benzenesulfinate in THF afforded stereoselectively (Z)-1,2-bis(benzenesulfonyl)alkene 5b with retention of configuration. Intermediate formation of (Z)-(beta-(benzenesulfonyl)alkenyl)iodonium salt 9b in these reactions was established by (1)H NMR experiments in CDCl(3). The formation of (Z)-9b involves a hitherto unobserved Michael addition of benzenesulfinate anion to the alkenyliodonium salts at the C(beta) atom, followed by halogen extrusion. The formation of a stereoisomeric mixture of (Z)- and (E)-bis-sulfones 5b, and 1-(benzenesulfonyl)cyclopentene 11 that was observed in the reaction of (Z)-(beta-fluoroalkenyl)iodonium salt 4b in CDCl(3), strongly suggests the intermediacy of 9b in this nucleophilic vinylic substitution.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

Differences in salt sensitivity of four deciduous tree species to soil or airborne salt.

Seedlings of four deciduous tree species maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), beech (Fagus sylvatica), horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) and lime (Tilia cordata) were exposed to de-icing salt (NaCl) either through the soil or applied to the above ground plant parts. A soil solution of 1.65 g l-1 NaCl was maintained from the start of the experiment in January 1999 until termination in June 1999. The main effects caused by salt treatment through the soil were a reduction in photosynthesis of up to 50% and the development of leaf chlorosis or necrosis covering up to 50% of the total leaf area for the most sensitive species (lime and beech); maple and horse chestnut were relatively tolerant. There was no significant correlation between Cl or Na concentration in leaves and the relative sensitivity of the species. Saturated salt solution was applied to bark, buds or leaf scars on two occasions three weeks apart during the winter season. This affected the timing of bud break with delays of up to eight days compared with the controls. In the most sensitive species the above ground salt treatments partly prevented bud break (beech) or reduced photosynthesis (lime). Uptake through the bark was most important for the development of stress effects, compared with uptake through the other above ground plant parts.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1981

Effects of a low-salt diet and of acute salt loading on blood pressure and intralymphocytic sodium concentration in young subjects with borderline hypertension.

1. Three groups of young patients with borderline hypertension were studied for a 12 months period. The first was on a free sodium diet while the second was on a low-salt diet. The third group of patients underwent acute salt loading. 2. After 12 months the group on free diet showed a significant increase of intralymphocytic sodium but no change in blood pressure was noted. Five patients who were re-checked after 24 months also had a significant increase in blood pressure. 3. Patients treated with a low-salt diet showed a significant decrease of both intralymphocytic sodium concentration and blood pressure. 4. After acute salt loading, borderline subjects with high intralymphocytic sodium showed a significant greater natriuresis whereas intralymphocytic sodium increased only in those subjects in whom it was initially normal.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Brain lesions in the paraventricular nuclei and catecholaminergic neurons minimize salt hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive rats.

1. The rise in blood pressure in Dahl salt-sensitive rats that received intracerebroventricular 6-hydroxydopamine was almost half that of the control rats throughout 20 weeks of high (8%) NaCl feeding. 2. The rise in blood pressure in Dahl salt-sensitive rats with bilateral complete electrolytic lesions of the paraventricular nuclei was almost half that of the control rats during 12 weeks of high (8%) NaCl feeding. 3. The bilateral complete electrolytic lesions of the suprachiasmatic nuclei enhanced the development of NaCl hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. 4. These results show that NaCl-induced hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive rats requires the integrity of the central nervous system catecholaminergic neurones and the paraventricular nuclei for its full expression.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Monte Carlo simulations of a polyelectrolyte chain with added salt: effect of temperature and salt valence.

Using the cooperative motion algorithm, the effect of salt valence z(s) and of the reduced temperature T* on a single polyelectrolyte chain as well as on counterions and salt ions themselves is studied. The calculations show that both parameters strongly influence the polymer, causing it to undergo conformational changes. For a given number of the added salt cations (anions) n(s) and temperature T*, the chain takes more and more compact forms as z(s) increases (z(s) > 0). For fixed z(s), in turn, the polymer size reduces sharply as T* drops down from intermediate to low. For high T* configurational the entropy dominates the chain statistics and the mean-square radius of gyration (s2)1/2(T*,n(s),z(s)) approaches its athermal value. The low-temperature polymer collapse is also accompanied by a drop in the effective mean charge per monomer q*(T*,n(s),z(s)) (condensation of ions onto the chain) and the total inner energy e*(T*,n(s),z(s)). Furthermore, the local structure of the system is analyzed by means of pair-correlation functions g(ab)(r,T*,n(s),z(s)). At lower T* they possess sharp local maxima at small interparticle distances r that disappear as T* grows. The former observation indicates that at lower T* the ions tend to group themselves close to each other. In particular, it is concluded that the condensation is dominated by the multivalent salt ions carrying charges of opposite sign to that of monomers.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1969

LOCALIZATION AND SECRETION OF SALT BY THE SALT GLANDS OF Tamarix aphylla.

Analysis of salt secreted by the salt glands of Tamarix aphylla shows that the composition of the secreted salt is dependent on the salt composition of the root environment. Rubidium ion, if added to culture solutions in which the plants were growing, is also taken up by the plants and subsequently secreted by the glands. Electron micrographs of glands from the ribidium-secreting plants show accumulations of electron-dense material in the microvacuoles of the secretory cells. It is concluded that rubidium is accumulated in the microvacuoles and subsequently secreted by their fusion with the plasmalemma.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Lead and other metals distribution in local cooking salt from the Fofi salt- spring in Akwana, Middle Benue Trough, Nigeria.

Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) technique has been used to determine the concentrations of lead(Pb) and other heavy metals in local cooking salts (LCS) from Akwana village, Middle Benue Trough, Nigeria. The comparison of the distribution of these metals in LCS, 'fake' salt (FS) and the usual common salts (CS) are given. Lead was found to be enriched in LCS by factor exceeding 200 times compared to the other salts. The origin of Pb contamination in the LCS is examined and its effects on the inhabitants of the village are considered.

Food Contamination↗
PubMed1963

EFFECTS OF CHRONIC EXCESS SALT INGESTION. ROLE OF GENETIC FACTORS IN BOTH DOCA-SALT AND RENAL HYPERTENSION.

By selective inbreeding, two strains of rats were developed previously that differed markedly in their susceptibility to the development of experimental hypertension from excess salt ingestion (1, 2). The present report indicates that with animals derived from the same strains, similar differences in response were obtained in rats subjected to either combined desoxycorticosterone-NaCl (DOCA-salt) treatment or unilateral renal artery compression without extra dietary salt. Thus differences in genetic substrate appear to influence the development of experimental hypertension produced by these three techniques and possibly this may hold true for all "varieties" of experimental hypertension. If true, it might allow the development of a unifying hypothesis that could be relevant not only to experimental hypertension but perhaps to human hypertension as well. The DOCA-salt regimen was more toxic to the animals than unilateral renal artery compression. Tentatively, this was ascribed to either, or both, the younger age or the higher NaCl intake of the animals in the former.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Uptake of sodium in protoplasts of salt-sensitive and salt-tolerant cultivars of rice, Oryza sativa L. determined by the fluorescent dye SBFI.

In this study, the uptake of Na+ into the cytosol of rice (Oryza sativa L. cvs Pokkali and BRRI Dhan29) protoplasts was measured using the acetoxy methyl ester of the fluorescent sodium-binding benzofuran isopthalate, SBFI-AM, and fluorescence microscopy. By means of inhibitor analyses the mechanisms for uptake and sequestration of Na+ in the salt-sensitive indica rice cv. BRRI Dhan29 and in the salt-tolerant indica rice cv. Pokkali were detected. Less Na+ was taken up into the cytosol of Pokkali than into BRRI Dhan29. The results indicate that K+-selective channels do not contribute to the Na+ uptake in Pokkali, whereas they are the major pathways for Na+ uptake in BRRI Dhan29 along with non-selective cation channels. However, non-selective cation channels seem to be the main pathways for Na+ uptake in Pokkali. Protoplasts from Pokkali leaves took up Na+ only transiently in the presence of extracellular Na+ at 5-100 mM. Therefore, it is likely that the protoplasts have a mechanism for fast extrusion of Na+ out of the cytoplasm. Experiments with protoplasts pretreated with NH4NO3 and NH4VO3 suggest that the salt-tolerant Pokkali extrudes Na+ mainly into the vacuole. After cultivation of both cultivars in the presence of 10 or 50 mM NaCl for 72 h, the isolated protoplasts from Pokkali took up less Na+ than the control protoplasts. The results suggest that the salt-tolerance in Pokkali depends on reduced uptake through K+-selective channels and a fast extrusion of Na+ into the vacuoles.

Benzofurans↗
PubMed1999

Deficiency of renal dopaminergic-dependent natriuretic response to acute sodium load in black salt-sensitive subjects in contrast to salt-resistant subjects.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the involvement of the renal dopaminergic system in the natriuretic responses to acute saline load in salt-resistant (SR) and salt-sensitive (SS) black normotensive (NT) and hypertensive (HT) subjects. DESIGN AND METHODS: We studied the relationship between the urinary excretion of dopa, dopamine (DA) and its metabolite DOPAC and the natriuretic responses to acute volume expansion (2 l NaCl 0.9% over 2 h) in 20 black NT subjects (12 SR and 8 SS) and 19 black HT subjects (10 SS and 9 SR). Subjects received a low salt (LS) diet (40 mmol sodium/day) for 1 week and a high salt (HS) diet (300 mmol sodium/day) for 1 week; the sequence of the dietary regimens was randomized. Comparisons were made between the results before the saline infusion (baseline) and the results 2 h after the infusion. RESULTS: In all the groups saline infusion induced significant increases in urinary volume (ml/4 h) of two- to three-fold and in urinary sodium excretion (mmol/4 h) of three- to ten-fold; these increases were significantly greater during the HS diet than during the LS diet. Saline infusion significantly increased the mean arterial pressure (MAP) by 5 mmHg in HT-SS subjects and by 4-5 mmHg in NT-SS subjects, but the MAP did not changed in the NT-SR and HT-SR groups. Under the LS diet, saline infusion changed the DA excretion (in nmol/4 h) by -49+/-89 in HT-SS subjects, by 17+/-52 in NT-SS subjects, by 235+/-72 in HT-SR subjects and by 220+/-86 in NT-SR subjects (P < 0.05 between SR and SS subjects). The saline infusion-induced changes in DA excretion correlated significantly with the increases in urinary sodium excretion (r = 0.71, P < 0.01) in the NT-SR and HT-SR subjects under the LS diet, but not in the SR groups on the HS diet nor in the SS groups (HT and NT) on either diet. Saline infusion significantly reduced the DA/dopa ratio in SS (NT and HT) but not SR (NT and HT) subjects, whereas the DA/DOPAC (dihydroxyphenylacetic acid) ratios were similar in all the groups. CONCLUSIONS: The urinary dopaminergic system may participate in the natriuretic responses to acute sodium load only in SR subjects (NT and HT) and only under LS diets, but not in SS subjects (NT and HT). This strongly suggests that black NT- and HT-SS subjects have an underlying impairment in the activity of the renal dopaminergic system which may be associated with a reduced decarboxylation of dopa into DA.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Renal sodium handling and haemodynamics are equally affected by hyperinsulinaemia in salt-sensitive and salt-resistant hypertensives.

OBJECTIVE: It is well-known that insulin induces renal sodium retention. It is not yet known whether insulin's renal effects are involved in the development of salt-sensitive hypertension. We assessed the effects of insulin on renal sodium handling and haemodynamics in 10 salt-sensitive (SS) and 10 salt-resistant (SR) essential hypertensives. DESIGN: After a baseline period of 90 min, all subjects underwent a euglycaemic clamp with sequential infusion of a physiological and supraphysiological dose of insulin (50 and 150 mU/kg per h) during 90 min periods each. Time-control studies were performed in the same subjects. Clearances of 131I-hippuran, 125I-iothalamate, sodium and lithium were used to evaluate renal plasma flow (RPF), CNa/glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and fractional proximal and distal sodium reabsorption. RESULTS: Plasma insulin levels and insulin-mediated glucose uptake did not differ between both groups. RPF and GFR showed similar increases during both insulin infusions in both groups. During physiological hyperinsulinaemia, fractional sodium excretion decreased 38% (P = 0.009) in the SS group and 36% (P = 0.002) in the SR group. During supraphysiological hyperinsulinaemia, fractional sodium excretion decreased 49% (P = 0.01) in the SS group and 19% (P = 0.2) in the SR group, not statistically different between both groups. Fractional proximal sodium reabsorption was unaffected and fractional distal sodium reabsorption increased to a similar magnitude in both groups. CONCLUSION: The comparable renal effects of acute exogenous hyperinsulinaemia in SS and SR hypertensives do not support a role for insulin in the development of salt-sensitive hypertension. However, the results do not yet exclude a role for chronic hyperinsulinaemia.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Acute hypotensive, natriuretic, and hormonal effects of nifedipine in salt-sensitive and salt-resistant black normotensive and hypertensive subjects.

In a randomized double-blind study, we compared the short-term effects of nifedipine (10 mg 3x daily for 1 day) versus placebo on 24-h blood pressure, diuresis, natriuresis, urinary excretion of dopamine and metabolites, and on plasma renin activity (PRA) and plasma aldosterone levels in 18 black hypertensive (HT) patients [eight salt-resistant (HT-SR) and 10 salt-sensitive (HT-SS)], and in 20 black normotensive (NT) subjects (12 NT-SR and eight NT-SS) who were studied randomly with both a high- (HS) and a low-salt (LS) diet. In comparison to placebo, nifedipine significantly decreased 24-h mean BP in all groups either with HS or LS diets (all p<0.05). With HS, greater hypotensive effects were achieved in NT-SS (-10+/-2 mm Hg) versus NT-SR (-3+/-1 mm Hg; p<0.05) and in HT-SS (-18+/-2 mm Hg) versus HT-SR (-12+/-2 mm Hg; p<0.05). In NT-SS and HT-SS, nifedipine induced greater (p<0.05) BP decrease with HS (-10+/-2 and -18+/-2 mm Hg) than with LS (-4+/-1 and -9+/-1 mm Hg, respectively), whereas in NT-SR and HT-SR, the hypotensive effect did not differ between HS and LS. Nifedipine versus placebo significantly increased natriuresis and fractional excretion of sodium in all groups only with HS (p<0.05) but not with LS diets. Only in HT-SS were the hypotensive and natriuretic effects of nifedipine significantly correlated (r = -0.77; p<0.01). Nifedipine produced a similar increase of the urinary excretion of dopamine, L-DOPA, and of DOPAC in all subjects, which did not correlate with hypotensive and natriuretic effects. Nifedipine did not modify plasma levels of renin and of aldosterone except in NT-SS with HS, in whom nifedipine increased PRA levels (p <0.05). We conclude that although nifedipine reduces BP in all groups of NT and HT with LS and HS diets, the effect is greater in salt-sensitive subjects with HS. Although in HT-SS with HS, the short-term natriuretic response to nifedipine may contribute to its hypotensive effects, the diuretic-natriuretic effect of nifedipine is not necessary for the expression of its hypotensive effect. Moreover, it is unlikely that any short-term effects of nifedipine either on the renal dopaminergic system or on the secretion of aldosterone explain nifedipine short-term hypotensive and diuretic-natriuretic effects.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Proline accumulation and salt-stress-induced gene expression in a salt-hypersensitive mutant of Arabidopsis.

The sos1 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana is more than 20 times more sensitive to NaCl stress than wild type Arabidopsis. Because proline (Pro) is generally thought to have an important role in plant salt tolerance, the sos1 mutant and the wild type were compared with respect to their capacity to accumulate Pro under NaCl stress, and sos1 mutant plants accumulated more Pro than wild-type. The P5CS gene, which catalyzes the rate-limiting step in Pro biosynthesis, is induced by salt stress to a higher level in sos1 than in the wild type. Although a defective high-affinity K uptake system in sos1 causes K deficiency and inhibits growth in NaCl-treated plants, this decrease is not a sufficient signal for Pro accumulation and P5CS gene expression. Not all salt-stress-induced genes have a higher level of expression in sos1. The expression levels of AtPLC and RD29A, which encode a phospholipase C homolog and a putative protective protein, respectively, are the same in sos1 as in the wild type. However, the expression of AtMYB, which encodes a putative transcriptional factor, is induced to a much higher level by salt stress in sos1. Thus, the SOS1 gene product serves as a negative regulator for the expression of P5CS and AtMYB, but has no effect on AtPLC and RD29A expression.

1-Pyrroline-5-Carboxylate Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed1969

Simulation of Cl Uptake by Low-salt Barley Roots as a Test of Models of Salt Uptake.

Computing techniques are used to simulate the course of uptake of K(+), Na(+), and Cl(-) by low-salt roots. Measurements of the fluxes of these ions in high-salt roots are used to calculate membrane permeabilities, which are then used to calculate cell uptake. In this way it is possible to test the predictive value of different models for the location of sites of salt uptake in the cell.On the basis of the permeability data used, it is suggested that anion transport at the plasmalemma must be larger than that provided by Mechanism I and that there is a need for transport of both cations and anions at the tonoplast. To account for the observation that the level of salt at equilibrium in the tissue is very nearly independent of concentration, it is suggested that there must be some feedback from vacuolar content to rate of transport at the tonoplast.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1970

Active H Efflux from Cells of Low-salt Barley Roots during Salt Accumulation.

Measurements were made of net H(+) loss from low-salt barley roots accumulating salt. Comparison of rates of loss from roots in different concentrations of KCl showed that H(+) loss increased in the same way as the Mechanism II component of salt uptake. This H(+) loss appeared to be coupled to salt uptake and was not due to increased respiration or metabolic breakdown of sugars. In view of the large negative potential of the cells (-60 millivolts), it is suggested that the H(+) loss is due to an outward proton transport process.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Effects of Salinity on Stomatal Conductance, Photosynthetic Capacity, and Carbon Isotope Discrimination of Salt-Tolerant (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and Salt-Sensitive (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) C(3) Non-Halophytes.

The effects of salinity on growth, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic capacity, and carbon isotope discrimination (Delta) of Gossypium hirsutum L. and Phaseolus vulgaris L. were evaluated. Plants were grown at different NaCl concentrations from 10 days old until mature reproductive structures were formed. Plant growth and leaf area development were strongly reduced by salinity, in both cotton and bean. Stomatal conductance also was reduced by salinity. The Delta always declined with increasing external salinity concentration, indicating that stomatal limitation of photosynthesis was increased. In cotton plant dry matter, Delta correlated with the ratio of intercellular to atmospheric CO(2) partial pressures (p(l)/p(a)) calculated by gas exchange. This correlation was not clear in bean plants, although Delta showed a more pronounced salt induced decline in bean than in cotton. Possible effects of heterogeneity of stomatal aperture and consequent overestimation of p(l) as determined from gas exchange could explain these results. Significant differences of Delta between leaf and seed material were observed in cotton and bean. This suggests different patterns of carbon allocation between leaves and seeds. The photon yield of O(2) evolution determined at rate-limiting photosynthetic photon flux density was insensitive to salinity in both species analyzed. The light- and CO(2)-saturated rate of CO(2) uptake and O(2) evolution showed a salt induced decline in both species. Possible explanations of this observation are discussed. O(2) hypersensitivity was observed in salt stressed cotton plants. These results clearly demonstrate that the effect of salinity on assimilation rate was mostly due to the reduction of stomatal conductance, and that calculation of p(l) may be overestimated in salt stressed plants, because of heterogeneity of stomatal aperture over the leaf surface.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Overexpression of Arabidopsis thaliana LTL1, a salt-induced gene encoding a GDSL-motif lipase, increases salt tolerance in yeast and transgenic plants.

Genes involved in the mechanisms of plant responses to salt stress may be used as biotechnological tools for the genetic improvement of salt tolerance in crop plants. This would help alleviate the increasing problem of salinization of lands cultivated under irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions. We have isolated a novel halotolerance gene from Arabidopsis thaliana, A. thaliana Li-tolerant lipase 1 (AtLTL1), on the basis of the phenotype of tolerance to LiCl conferred by its expression in yeast. AtLTL1 encodes a putative lipase of the GDSL-motif family, which includes bacterial and a very large number of plant proteins. In Arabidopsis, AtLTL1 expression is rapidly induced by LiCl or NaCl, but not by other abiotic stresses. Overexpression of AtLTL1 increases salt tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis plants, compared to non-transformed controls, allowing germination of seeds in the presence of toxic concentrations of LiCl and NaCl, and stimulating vegetative growth, flowering and seed set in the presence of NaCl. These results clearly point to a role of AtLTL1 in the mechanisms of salt tolerance. In addition, we show that AtLTL1 expression is also activated, although only transiently, by salicylic acid (SA), suggesting that the lipase could also be involved in defence reactions against pathogens.

Adaptation, Physiological↗