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PubMed1995

Reading and eye movements in age-related maculopathy.

Reading characteristics were studied in age-related maculopathy (ARM) by monitoring eye movement patterns as subjects read word charts and text charts that contain a wide range of print sizes. Eye movements were monitored with an infrared scleral reflection device and subjects were tested over a wide range of chart luminances. In normal subjects, as print size approaches threshold, reading speed slows mainly because of a decrease in fixation rate, whereas regressive saccades remain infrequent. There is little change in the ratio of number of letters read per forward saccade. With decreased luminance, there is a decreased reading acuity but the relation between reading speed and the size of print relative to the threshold size remains relatively constant. Subjects with ARM show similar fixation rates to normals, but they average fewer letters per forward saccade and make more frequent regressions. ARM subjects are more likely to have reading performance strongly affected by luminance. The number of letters per forward saccade can show a strong dependence on luminance, whereas fixation rates remain relatively unchanged. It is proposed that reduced reading performance in ARM is predominantly the result of a reduced perceptual span, with poor oculomotor control playing a secondary role. Optimal print size may be best predicted from letter chart acuity (r = 0.70) or word reading acuity (r = 0.69). Word reading acuity is the best predictor of peak reading speed (r = -0.74), whereas peak reading speed is poorly correlated with contrast sensitivity (r = 0.26) and scotoma area (r = -0.42).

Aged↗
PubMed2004

Reading errors made by children with low vision.

Previous research has shown that, on average, children with low vision lag their sighted peers in general reading development (in terms of speed, accuracy and comprehension). This study sought to examine this apparent lag by comparing the reading profiles of 25 normally sighted readers (mean age 8 years 8 months) with 25 low vision readers. The children were tested using a reading test (the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability, NARA) and were matched on the reading accuracy score produced by the test. Therefore in terms of the reading accuracy scores (and reading ages) derived from the NARA both groups were the same. The low vision readers were on average older than the normally sighted children (mean = 10 years, 5 months). When the reading profile (i.e. accuracy, comprehension and speed) was examined in the same analysis no significant effect was revealed [d.f. = 1, 48; F = 0.05; p > 0.1], but a general lag for these children is suggested (in keeping with previous research). However, a closer analysis of the reading error profile revealed the most common reading errors made by all readers in the analysis were either mispronunciations or substitutions. The low vision readers were more prone to making substitution errors than mispronunciations and the reverse was true for normally sighted readers [d.f. = 1, 48; F = 7.1; p < 0.05]. This indicates that the reading strategies adopted by low vision readers may differ from those of normally sighted readers of the same apparent reading ability.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2003

"Bottom-up" and "top-down" effects on reading saccades: a case study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the role right foveal/parafoveal sparing plays in reading single words, word arrays, and eye movement patterns in a single case with an incongruous hemianopia. METHODS: The patient, a 48-year-old right handed male with a macular sparing hemianopia in his left eye and a macular splitting hemianopia in his right eye, performed various reading tasks. Single word reading speeds were monitored using a "voice-trigger" system. Eye movements were recorded while reading three passages of text, and PET data were gathered while the subject performed a variety of reading tasks in the camera. RESULTS: The patient was faster at reading single words and text with his left eye compared with his right. A small word length effect was present in his right eye but not his left. His eye movement patterns were more orderly when reading text with his left eye, making fewer saccades. The PET data provided evidence of "top-down" processes involved in reading. Binocular single word reading produced activity in the representation of foveal V1 bilaterally; however, text reading with the left eye only was associated with activation in left but not right parafoveal V1, despite there being visual stimuli in both visual fields. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of a word length effect (typically associated with pure alexia) can be caused by a macular splitting hemianopia. Right parafoveal vision is not critically involved in single word identification, but is when planning left to right reading saccades. The influence of top-down attentional processes during text reading can be visualised in parafoveal V1 using PET.

Hemianopsia↗
PubMed2003

Coordination of eye and head movements during reading.

PURPOSE: There is little information regarding the characteristics of head movements during reading. This study was undertaken to investigate horizontal and vertical head movements during two different reading tasks. METHODS: Head and eye movements were monitored with an infrared pupil and head tracker in 15 subjects during repeated reading of text from an A4-sized card and a card 90 degrees wide. In addition, head and eye movements were recorded in 45 subjects to compare head movement propensity during an A4 text-reading task and a saccadic task of an equivalent gaze shift. RESULTS: During the A4 standard reading task, horizontal and vertical head movements accounted for 4.7% and 28.7% of the gaze shift, respectively. During the 90 degrees text reading, horizontal head movements accounted for 40.3% of the gaze amplitude, and vertical head movements accounted for 28.4%. Horizontal gaze velocities increased significantly on repeated A4 and 90 degrees text readings, as did horizontal head velocities and amplitudes. Reading head movement propensities were significantly smaller than saccadic head movement propensities (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Head movement strategies are rapidly switched between the A4 and 90 degrees text-reading paradigms. They are minimized during A4 text reading but actively assist the gaze strategy during 90 degrees text reading. Horizontal head movement is reduced during A4 reading compared to the equivalent saccadic task and may be suppressed to improve fixation stability. The results support the view that the head and eye movement system is a highly coupled but extremely flexible system.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The impact of graduate education on reading for lifelong learning.

BACKGROUND: Reading is one means of achieving professional lifelong learning, and while nursing as a profession has an abundance of literary resources, the amount of time nurses actually spend reading is unknown. Previous studies found nurses who had graduate degrees, were in leadership positions, and held multiple memberships in professional nursing organizations reported increased reading time. This study examined the amount of time RN students entering graduate school and graduate school alumni spend reading as well as their primary purpose (interest, application, and commitment) for the reading. METHOD: A descriptive/exploratory survey research design was used. The Reading Activity Inventory Tool was administered to new graduate (entry) students (n = 47) during orientation to their graduate program and graduate alumni (n = 99) who were 1, 2, and 3 years postcompletion of their masters degrees. Participants were recruited from four Texas nursing schools. FINDINGS: The average weekly time participants reported reading professional literature was 10 hours and 50 minutes for the entry group and 6 hours for the alumni group. As to the purpose (interest, application, and commitment) of reading the nursing literature, there was no significant difference on total interest or total application among the four cohorts (entry students and 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-year alumni). Entry students had a higher total commitment to reading than alumni nurses. CONCLUSION: While entry students spent more time reading in this study, the alumni with advanced degrees seemed invested in the profession with significantly more journal subscriptions, increased memberships in nursing organizations, and consistent reading activities. Strategies to encourage all nurses to read for lifelong learning need to be explored.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Characteristics of discrepancies between self-reported visual function and measured reading speed. Salisbury Eye Evaluation Project Team.

PURPOSE: Visual impairment is a risk factor for morbidity in the elderly and is often screened for by self-report. This study evaluates whether there are subsets for whom there is a discrepancy between self-reported and measured function. METHODS: The prevalence of a discrepancy between self-reported difficulty reading a newspaper and measured reading speed was determined in 2520 community-based men and women, aged 65 to 84 years, and the discrepant group characterized by polychotomous regression. RESULTS: Of subjects who reported minimal difficulty reading a newspaper, 10.8% (227/2107) read newsprint-sized text (0.21 degrees) more slowly than 80 words/min, a level previously shown to be necessary for sustained reading. Poor visual acuity, presence of psychiatric symptoms, and less satisfaction with vision were associated with being in the group that read slowly and reported difficulty with reading. Better cognition, better visual acuity, more years of education, white race, and fewer psychiatric symptoms were associated with being in the group that read more quickly and reported minimal difficulty. When reading the text size at which subjects read their fastest, only 2.6% of those with minimal difficulty remained discrepant. These individuals were more likely to have less education, be male, be African American, and have poorer cognitive status than those who did not remain discrepant. CONCLUSIONS: A subset of the elderly population have a substantial discrepancy between self-reported reading difficulty and measured reading speed. In some, this discrepancy may be based on underlying expectations and experiences, and in others it may represent a transition from no visual impairment to visual impairment.

Aged↗
PubMed1992

The value of systematic reading. Retaining and applying current information is vital in developing leadership ability.

Keeping up-to-date, having the right information, and growing in knowledge and awareness are more important than ever. Reading is one of the primary ways to develop professional expertise and leadership ability--and to stay competitive. Many persons are facing the new reality: Job security is an inner factor based on inner competence. Part of that competence has to do with one's ability and skill in continually learning. People who read not only develop more competence in their current abilities but, equally important, develop confidence in their ability to learn and meet the demands of accelerated change. Reading helps people stay up-to-date and broaden their perspectives. Reading also provides enjoyment. But if we do not remember and apply what we read, it has little value. People therefore must read widely and read deliberately for retention and application. To make reading a part of their lives, people must make a commitment to read every day, read material that interests them, visit bookstores and libraries, work at retention and application, discuss with others what they are reading, and test what they read against their own experience.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMed2002

The effect of letter spacing on reading speed in central and peripheral vision.

PURPOSE: Crowding, the adverse spatial interaction due to proximity of adjacent letters, has been suggested as an explanation for slow reading in peripheral vision. The purpose of this study was to examine whether reading speed can be improved in normal peripheral vision by increasing the letter spacing. Also tested was whether letter spacing imposes a different limit on reading speed of small versus large print. METHODS: Six normal observers read aloud single, short sentences presented on a computer monitor, one word at a time, by rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP). Reading speeds were calculated based on the RSVP exposure durations yielding 80% correctly read words. Letters were rendered in Courier, a fixed-width font. Testing was conducted at the fovea, 5 degrees and 10 degrees in the inferior visual field. The critical print size (CPS) was first determined for each observer by measuring reading speeds for four print sizes, using the standard letter spacing (center-to-center separation of adjacent letters; standard Courier spacing: 1.16 times the width of the lowercase x). Text was then presented at 0.8 x or 1.5x CPS, and reading speed was measured for five letter spacings, ranging from 0.5 times to 2 times the standard spacing. RESULTS: As expected, reading speed was highest at the fovea, decreased with eccentricity, and was faster for the larger print size. At all eccentricities and for both print sizes, reading speed increased with letter spacing, up to a critical letter spacing, and then either remained constant at the same reading speed or decreased slightly for larger letter spacings. The value of the critical letter spacing was very close to the standard letter spacing and did not depend on eccentricity or print size. CONCLUSIONS: Increased letter spacing beyond the standard size, which presumably decreases the adverse effect of crowding, does not lead to an increase in reading speed in central or peripheral vision.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Parent report of reading to young children.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the predictors and frequency of book-sharing activities in a nationally representative sample of families with young children and to examine the extent to which parents report that pediatric health care providers are addressing early literacy activities. METHODS: This study analyzed data from the 2000 National Survey of Early Childhood Health (NSECH), a telephone survey of 2068 parents of children aged 4 to 35 months. Parents were queried about the frequency of reading with their child, whether their pediatric provider discussed reading in the past year, and, if not, whether a discussion of the importance of reading to their child would have been helpful. Descriptive statistics, bivariate analyses, and multivariate logistic regression to identify predictors of daily reading among parents of young children nationally were used. RESULTS: Approximately 52% of young children are reportedly read to every day by a parent. Significant predictors of daily reading include older child's age (19-35 months; odds ratio [OR]: 1.77; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.18-2.65, as compared with 4-9 months), maternal education greater than high school (OR: 2.00; 95% CI: 1.24-3.22), greater number of children's books in the home (OR: 1.01; 95% CI: 1.00-1.01), and discussion of reading by the pediatric provider (OR: 1.66; 95% CI: 1.23-2.24). Lower odds of daily reading are found for maternal full-time working status (OR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.49-0.95), black race/ethnicity (OR: 0.61; 95% CI: 0.41-0.91), Hispanic race/ethnicity (OR: 0.56; 95% CI: 0.37-0.86), Spanish language-dominant parents (OR: 0.37; 95% CI: 0.22-0.62), and >1 child in the household (2 children OR: 0.68, 95% CI: 0.48-0.97; 3 children OR: 0.53, 95% CI: 0.35-0.82). Approximately 37% of parents of young children stated that their child's pediatric provider had not discussed reading with them. Nearly half (47%) of these parents indicated that they would have found such a discussion helpful. CONCLUSIONS: Family context and daily reading routines are important for a child's early literacy development. This national study identifies how family characteristics and routines are associated with the family's literacy orientation. The analysis also indicates that a large percentage of parents with young children who do not read daily believe that it would be helpful to discuss the importance of reading with their child's pediatric provider.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1996

The necessary field of view to read with an optimal stand magnifier.

BACKGROUND: For most people with low vision, some form of magnification is necessary to read. Using a magnifier reduces the number of letters that can be seen simultaneously (field of view), which has been shown to decrease reading rates. This study sought to determine how many letters are necessary to attain maximal reading rates with a stand magnifier. METHODS: Younger and older normally-sighted and visually-impaired observers read short passages using a fiber optic stand magnifier (taper). The optical properties of this magnifier allowed the field of view to be precisely varied. Each subject read using at least four field sizes (3, 5, 9 and 13 characters visible) while reading speed was measured. RESULTS: Reading rates continued to increase with as many as 13 characters visible, regardless of age or vision status. In addition, reading with the taper was slower for all subject groups than reading without the magnifier. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms reports that reading rates increase as the field of view increases when reading from a page of text. The need for this large field of view relative to other low vision reading aids (i.e., computer-generated scroll displays) is likely the result of the readers' need to actively navigate across the page of text.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Independent versus sequential reading in ROC studies of computer-assist modalities: analysis of components of variance.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The authors analyzed two methods for arranging the temporal sequencing of unaided versus computer-assisted reading in multiple-reader, multiple-case receiver operating characteristic studies of detection of solitary pulmonary nodules on chest radiographs. In the "independent" mode the readings are separated by about I month; in the "sequential" mode, the computer-assisted reading immediately follows the unassisted reading. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The authors used the method of Beiden, Wagner, and Campbell (BWC) to decompose the components of variance of receiver operating characteristic accuracy measures into those that are correlated and those that are uncorrelated across reading conditions. Only the latter contribute to uncertainty in estimates of the difference in accuracy measures across reading conditions (unaided vs aided). This method was used to analyze data from two independent studies of the detection of solitary pulmonary nodules on chest radiographs. RESULTS: In the sequential reading mode the components that were correlated across reading conditions increased compared to the independent reading mode, as might be expected. What was not anticipated was the fact that the total reader variance was approximately the same for the two reading modes. The results were remarkably similar across the two independent studies analyzed. CONCLUSION: The sequential reading mode may thus be the more sensitive probe of the difference between unassisted and computer-assisted reading, if the mean effect is unperturbed (as here). It is also the least demanding on the logistics and investment of reader time.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1999

Incremental cost-effectiveness of double-reading mammograms.

BACKGROUND: Double reading is a widely used criterion standard in breast cancer screening despite a lack of evidence of the cost-effectiveness of the second reading. This study evaluates the incremental cost-effectiveness of such a strategy. DESIGN: Cost-effectiveness analysis: Nationwide population-based semi-annual screening program for women aged 50-59 in Finland. Participation rate was 91%. All mammograms (95,423) performed during 1990-1995 in three screening centers of the Finnish Cancer Society were read by two radiologists with gradings recorded. The effectiveness of the double reading was the difference in cancers detected in the double compared to that of the single reading. Incremental costs of the double reading for the health care and non-health care and the time costs were estimated. The main outcome measure was the incremental cost per additional cancer found as a result of the double-reading strategy. RESULTS: The total number of cancers detected with the double and single reading were 290 and 261, respectively. A significantly higher ratio of carcinoma in situ was the causative pathology in cancers detected only by the second reader. The cost per cancer detected with a single reading was US$ 18,340. The incremental cost of any additional cancer found was US$ 25,523, that is, a 39% higher cost per additional cancer found by double reading. CONCLUSIONS: The additional cost per cancer detected by double reading is not drastically higher than with single reading. However, the additional cost per life year saved may be much higher.

Breast Neoplasms↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A comparison of multiple methods for the identification of children with reading disabilities.

There has been considerable discussion of the methods used for the identification of children with reading disabilities. This study examined three different methods that could be used in the identification of children with reading disabilities and their consistency with teacher ratings of behaviors believed to be associated with reading disabilities. Standardized, norm-referenced measures of achievement, phonological processing measures, and curriculum-based measures of reading fluency were used with 40 children in Grades 1 and 2. Comparisons were made to determine which measures, if any, differentiated between children referred for reading disabilities (n = 20) and children who were progressing typically in reading in their general education classroom settings (n = 20). The results indicated significant between-group differences on standardized, norm-referenced measures of reading recognition, word attack, and comprehension; phonological measures of blending nonwords and elision; and reading fluency. Teacher ratings on the Dyslexia Screening Instrument were consistent with teacher beliefs regarding children's progress in reading. All measures were found to correlate significantly with each other. However, correlations were generally in the moderate range, suggesting that the measures used did not measure the same reading skills or, in the case of phonological processing, the underlying abilities believed to be necessary for reading. Given the differences in tasks and the moderate correlations, it is likely that the choice of measures may affect the conclusions reached regarding a student's reading ability.

Child↗
PubMed1997

Strategies to increase adherence with tuberculosis test reading in a high-risk population.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the most effective strategy to encourage adherence with tuberculosis test reading in a high-risk population. Design. Prospective randomized controlled trial. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: Consecutive sample of 627 children ages 1 to 12 years due for a tuberculosis (TB) test in an urban children's hospital outpatient department. One child per family was enrolled. INTERVENTION: All families received education regarding the importance of skin testing for TB and the need for follow-up, and written and verbal instructions regarding test reading. Families were randomly assigned to one of five strategies for follow-up TB test reading at 48 to 72 hours: 1) routine verbal and written instructions, 2) reminder phone call, 3) transportation tokens and toy on return, 4) withholding of school forms until time of reading and need to repeat TB test if not timely read, 5) parents taught to read induration with nurse home visit. Those who did not have tests read at 48 to 72 hours by a trained professional were phoned 1 week later. RESULTS: The five groups did not differ with regard to TB risk factor score, maternal education, transportation source, or perceived importance of TB testing. Before the study the follow-up rate of TB test reading by a trained professional was 45%. Reading rates in this study were 58%, 70%, 67%, 70%, and 72% for groups 1 to 5, respectively. In group 4, only 39% had school forms to be completed and their adherence rate was 84% (53/63). Compared to group 1, the only statistically significant improvement was in group 4, especially for those who needed school forms completed, and in group 5. Those not adhering in groups 1 to 4 did not differ from returnees with regard to TB risk factors, maternal education, transportation, or perceived importance of testing. The most common reasons for failing to return included forgetfulness, transportation, and time constraints. Group 5 was stopped early because of difficulty with nurse visits (N = 98). When told of the nurse visit, 9% (9/98) families could not find a time for the visit. Seventeen percent (17/98) were visited but the child was not home, and 7% (7/98) were not visited because of a nurse scheduling problem. CONCLUSIONS: In a high-risk population, adherence with TB test reading is poor. However, education and return of school forms at reading time can significantly improve adherence. Although requiring larger investment in resources, visiting nurses may also aid in test reading.

Child↗
PubMed1998

Multivariate behavioral genetic analysis of achievement and cognitive measures in reading-disabled and control twin pairs.

In recent years behavioral genetic studies have provided conclusive evidence that reading disability and related learning disorders, such as mathematics disability, are due at least in part to heritable factors (DeFries et al. 1987; Alarcón et al. 1997). Although the observed relationship between performance in these areas also may be due substantially to genetic influences (Light and DeFries 1995; Thompson et al. 1991), relatively few studies have examined the genetic and environmental etiology of this covariation in a multivariate framework. In the present study data from 196 identical (monozygotic; MZ) and 155 same-sex fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twin pairs in which at least one member of each pair evidenced reading problems in school (reading disabled) were subjected to a multivariate behavioral genetic analysis. Structural equation models were fitted to twin data for verbal IQ (VIQ), phonological decoding ability (PHON), reading performance (READ), and mathematics performance (MATH) to assess the extent to which VIQ and PHON mediate the observed covariation between READ and MATH. Results suggest that VIQ and PHON account for most of the covariation between READ and MATH. Moreover, approximately 82% of the observed correlation between READ and MATH was due to genetic factors that also influence VIQ and PHON. When data from 132 MZ and 91 same-sex DZ control twin pairs in which neither twin had a history of reading problems were subjected to the same analyses, the covariation between READ and MATH was found to be due to both genetic and shared environmental influences. Thus genetic factors that influence VIQ and PHON also contribute to the observed covariation between READ and MATH in both a reading-disabled and a control twin sample.

Achievement↗
PubMed2006

Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorder.

This study investigated reading skills in 41 children with autism spectrum disorder. Four components of reading skill were assessed: word recognition, nonword decoding, text reading accuracy and text comprehension. Overall, levels of word and nonword reading and text reading accuracy fell within average range although reading comprehension was impaired. However, there was considerable variability across the sample with performance on most tests ranging from floor to ceiling levels. Some children read accurately but showed very poor comprehension, consistent with a hyperlexia reading profile; some children were poor at reading words and nonwords whereas others were unable to decode nonwords, despite a reasonable level of word reading skill. These findings demonstrate the heterogeneous nature of reading skills in children with ASD.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Reading without saccadic eye movements.

To assess the limitation on reading speed imposed by saccadic eye movements, we measured reading speed in 13 normally-sighted observers using two modes of text presentations: PAGE text which presents an entire passage conventionally in static, paragraph format, and rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) which presents text sequentially, one word at a time at the same location in the visual field. In Expt 1, subjects read PAGE and RSVP text orally across a wide range of letter sizes (2X to 32X single-letter acuity) and reading speed was computed from the number of correct words read per minute. Reading speeds were consistently faster for RSVP compared to PAGE text at all letter sizes tested. The average speeds for text of an intermediate letter size (8X acuity) were 1171 words/min for RSVP and 303 words/min for PAGE text. In Expt 2 subjects read PAGE and RSVP text silently and a multiple-choice comprehension test was administered after each passage. All subjects continued to read RSVP text faster, and 6 subjects read at the maximum testable rate (1652 words/min) with at least 75% correct on the comprehension tests. Experiment 3 assessed the minimum word exposure time required for decoding text using RSVP to minimize potential delays due to saccadic eye movement control. Successive words were presented for a fixed duration (word duration) with a blank interval (ISI) between words. The minimum word duration required for accurate oral reading averaged 69.4 msec and was not reduced by increasing ISI. We interpret these results as an indication that the programming and execution of saccadic eye movements impose an upper limit on conventional reading speed.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Do current connectionist learning models account for reading development in different languages?

Learning to read a relatively irregular orthography, such as English, is harder and takes longer than learning to read a relatively regular orthography, such as German. At the end of grade 1, the difference in reading performance on a simple set of words and nonwords is quite dramatic. Whereas children using regular orthographies are already close to ceiling, English children read only about 40% of the words and nonwords correctly. It takes almost 4 years for English children to come close to the reading level of their German peers. In the present study, we investigated to what extent recent connectionist learning models are capable of simulating this cross-language learning rate effect as measured by nonword decoding accuracy. We implemented German and English versions of two major connectionist reading models, Plaut et al.'s (Plaut, D. C., McClelland, J. L., Seidenberg, M. S., & Patterson, K. (1996). Understanding normal and impaired word reading: computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review, 103, 56-115) parallel distributed model and Zorzi et al.'s (Zorzi, M., Houghton, G., & Butterworth, B. (1998a). Two routes or one in reading aloud? A connectionist dual-process model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24, 1131-1161); two-layer associative network. While both models predicted an overall advantage for the more regular orthography (i.e. German over English), they failed to predict that the difference between children learning to read regular versus irregular orthographies is larger earlier on. Further investigations showed that the two-layer network could be brought to simulate the cross-language learning rate effect when cross-language differences in teaching methods (phonics versus whole-word approach) were taken into account. The present work thus shows that in order to adequately capture the pattern of reading acquisition displayed by children, current connectionist models must not only be sensitive to the statistical structure of spelling-to-sound relations but also to the way reading is taught in different countries.

Child↗