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PubMed2001

Dante's Divine Comedy revisited: what can modern psychoanalysts learn from a medieval "psychoanalysis"?

I realize after having gone over this material that I have done a sort of deconstruction of Dante's Divine Comedy which putatively attempts to raise the human vision to transcendent heights and to focus love on the love of God, but which along the way indulges in the very human aspects of pity, compassion, music, poetry, and the other arts, as well as reason and puzzlement. In this sense the poem is also an exposition of the value of the higher human faculties, which contrasts at times rather vividly with the apparently harsh autocratic fates that are assigned to some characters--who do not seem quite deserving of what is inflicted upon them. Here we have a collision between absolute faith in the judgment of God and human reason and compassion which sometimes seems to be unable to justify these judgments. In spite of the fact that Dante is trying to adhere to orthodox theology throughout, it is clear that his poetic soul has great difficulty in avoiding the depiction of characters for whom he has a secret sympathy. The central point of this study of The Divine Comedy is to emphasize how Dante, almost in spite of himself, expressed empathy and understanding for a variety of unfortunates either in the Inferno or in the Purgatorio. Virgil even scolds him for his compassion, arguing that God's justice is always correct and if God is angry at someone and punishes him or her, Dante should also be angry and not compassionate. Dante tries, but he cannot quite manage to do it. Translated into modern terminology, we can learn from this report of a medieval "psychoanalysis" an important lesson in our clinical work. Rigid adherence to rules such as those Freud himself proclaimed (although he never followed them), for instance in his famous demand that one be always opaque to the patient, and/or rigid adherence to one or another psychoanalytic theory, must be understood as a form of countertransference, a character flaw in the analyst. Each case demands its own approach and its own form or forms or channels of understanding, just as Dante offers us in The Divine Comedy. It is because he offers such a perspective almost in spite of himself that his poem transcends the medieval mind and becomes relevant to all ages and cultures. As a rule of thumb, when one finds one's instinctual convictions about how to proceed in conflict with one's theories and set of rules, something is wrong. It is with the greatest trepidation that a well-analysed psychoanalyst should force him- or herself to ignore an instinctual or intuitive feeling of how to respond to a patient because it conflicts with some theoretical principles or official rules of procedure. Such a conflict is a call for further self-analysis, consultation with colleagues, and creative solutions.

Humans↗
PubMed2003

The role of psychoanalytic theory and practice in understanding and treating schizophrenia: a rejoinder to the PORT report's condemnation of psychoanalysis.

The Schizophrenia PORT report rejects, in recommendation 22, the use of psychodynamic therapies. It also rejects, in recommendation 26, a crucial point of psychoanalytic theory by rejecting family interventions based on the assumption that the family of origin can make a ca usal contribution to schizophrenia. Both recommendations are based on level "C" evidence, which is defined by the authors as a: "Recommendation based primarily on expert opinion, with minimal research-based evidence, but significant clinical experience" (Lehman et al., 1998, p. 2). Conclusions based on low-level evidence would be better formulated in tentative rather than categorical statements as is now done in the PORT report. More substantially, I report on a number of empirical studies that contradict the claims of recommendations 22 and 26. I therefore urge that the two PORT recommendations be revised. I argue that the recommendations can be rewritten so that a useful point in each of the recommendations can be preserved and even strengthened. With reference to recommendation 22, it is wise to stress that psychoanalytic-inspired therapies with schizophrenics should not simply apply the same methods used in the treatment of neurotics. With reference to recommendation 26, it is important to stress that imposing or augmenting guilt is not a good therapeutic technique. Similarly, it is not good therapeutic practice to deny the truth. To tell the truth and not create guilt requires artful interventions. If recommendations 22 and 26 were to be rewritten as suggested, they would become scientifically defensible and would make a positive contribution by stressing the contributions that many approaches, including psychoanalysis, can make to the treatment of schizophrenia. As they stand now, recommendations 22 and 26 are contradicted by the scientific evidence I will submit.

Empirical Research↗
PubMed2003

Freud's psychoanalysis of Edith Banfield Jackson, 1930-1936.

This paper is a historical study of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis of Edith Banfield Jackson. It relies on primary sources, including unpublished correspondence, to describe her background, the analysis itself, and her subsequent life. This analysis, which began in 1930, had both clinical and training purposes. Freud's actual methods are contrasted with his published recommendations in terms of anonymity, neutrality, and confidentiality. During this analysis, Sigmund Freud took on a number of roles in Edith Jackson's life, including teacher, commentator, social intermediary, recipient of her translation services, and recipient of her philanthropic donations. These roles are described in detail. The implications of Freud's actual methods in this case are fully discussed. Since Freud did not describe the methods he used in this case, they cannot be replicated, and, for clinical purposes, they are lost to history.

Austria↗
PubMed2002

[Psychoanalysis and sexology in Rio de Janeiro between the two world wars: between science and self improvement].

The beginning of psychoanalysis and sexology in Brazil takes place in the 1920's. It develops along the 30's and 40's. During this period, there is also a remarkable increase in the number of papers by other kind of specialists in sex, as well as translations and publications of European and North American authors that are considered today as the founders of such areas of studies. We have tried to go deeper into this intellectual mist, which began to surround the issue of sex in Brazil during that period of time. In order to do so, we have analyzed the publishing industry of the time, focusing the publications on this topic. Starting with the different relations these new subjects established with medicine, we have tried to understand the different trends they produced in Brazilian intellectual domains.

Brazil↗
PubMed1991

Contributions to the history of psychology: LXXIV. Edith Banfield Jackson: a pioneer in psychoanalysis.

Edith Jackson, recipient of one of Sigmund Freud's coveted rings, served him well as an ambassador for psychoanalysis. As a child psychiatrist for 25 years at the Yale School of Medicine, she developed the rooming-in plan which allowed parents and newborns to be together from birth. With Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham, she opened the Jackson Nursery, a precursor of American daycare centers. Among the most important people in developing the field of child psychology, Edith was one of the early psychologists who recognized the importance of satisfying the emotional as well as the physical needs of the newborn.

Child Psychiatry↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy and supportive psychotherapy: current controversies].

The author in this paper discusses conceptual, clinical and educational issues of the contemporary controversies regarding the relationship between psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy and psychodynamically oriented supportive psychotherapy. He argues in favor of a strict definition of techniques as the best way leading to a clear-cut differentiation of the three modalities of treatment. Within this frame he discusses interpretation, transference analysis and technical neutrality as the most important aspects and their respective use in the various psychodynamic therapies. Finally he emphasizes that teaching in psychoanalytic and supportive psychotherapies should be part of the psychoanalytic training program of psychoanalytic institutes.

Humans↗
PubMed1975

Psychoanalysis as a theory of therapy.

The development of psychoanalytic theory is traced from its origins in Freud's early thinking in terms of his advancing clinical experience. While the influence of clinical experience on the modifications of theory has long been accepted, little attention has been paid to the broad spectrum effects of changing theoretical perspectives on the technique of clinical psychoanalysis. This development is traced through the emergence of ego psychology and the dominance of the structural theory to more current developments having to do with object relations and the theory narcissism. The residual theoretical ambiguities and clinical perplexities are illustrated in two clinical cases. The development of psychoanalytic theory and the correlative aspects of technique are seen as manifesting an organic developmental process which has led to an increasing sophistication of analytic intervention and a broadening capacity for dealing with increasingly difficult and less classical types of cases. The conclusion is drawn that therapeutic lestening is equivalently an informed listening, and it is theory that lends understanding and sensitivity to the hearing process. It is theory that is to be put in the service of listening, rather than listening to be put in the service of theory.

Abreaction↗
PubMed1989

[Freud, Fliess, and the parenthood of psychoanalysis].

Although Freud attributed his self analytic interest and revived oedipal conflict to the death of his father, his biopsychological parenthood was also a significant determinant. Freud fathered six children, reactivating his own childhood and infantile unconscious conflicts and fantasies. His idealization of Fliess began with his own fatherhood, and the interruption of his exclusive relationship with his wife, and unconsciously his mother. His enlarging family evoked his mother's pregnancies and the birth of his seven siblings. Freud identified with his fertile parents and envied his sibling rivals. The experience of having five sisters in succession (after the death of his brother Julius) was of great importance. Freud's mother and sisters have been protectively veiled in his associations, with biographical and theoretical implications. Freud creatively analyzed himself, encountering and explaining the childhood past in his present life, as he became the father of psychoanalysis.

Austria↗
PubMed1988

[Psychoanalysis in Germany under nazi rule: the adjustment to the institution and the relationships between Jewish and non-Jewish psychoanalysts].

The process of institutional adaptation of the German Psychoanalytic Society (Deutsche Psychoanalytische Gesellschaft--D.P.G.) to National Socialism and the relationship between Jewish and non-Jewish psychoanalysts are described step by step. In a second paragraph, based on new documents, the "case of Edith Jacobson" is represented, and a dilemma of the I.P.A. regarding National Socialism shown. In a last paragraph the struggle between defense, return of the repressed and remembrance is developed from institutional reconstruction of both psychotherapy and psychoanalysis, the founding of the German Psychoanalytical Association (Deutsche Psychoanalytische Vereinigung--D.P.V.) in 1950, its separation from the D.P.G., and group processes within the D.P.V. before the Hamburg Congress.

Germany↗
PubMed2001

Ethical considerations on dynamic psychiatry and the tradition of relationship in psychoanalysis. An historical overview.

The historical tradition of psychoanalysis as the therapeutic science of interpersonal processes is traced back to its roots in Freud and discussed in its therapeutic and philosophical implications. The Berlin School of Dynamic Psychiatry enlarges the interpersonal principle with the therapeutic concept of group dynamics, identity and of social energy, giving it an implication of therapeutic optimism and a new ethical significance.

Ethics, Medical↗
PubMed1976

The future of psychoanalysis and its institutes.

If the function of psychoanalytic training institutes is to train practitioners of psychoanalytic technique, it is unreasonable to expect institutes to offer effective training in research or other scholarly applications of psychoanalysis. But if one insists that the training of psychoanalysts should, at least in some instances, encompass more than the teaching of psychoanalytic therapy, the training institutes have been failing in their function to educate candidates for scholarly activities. Whether the structure of the independent training institutes can permit such broadened training is questioned. One solution is to move the educational function into the university setting.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Psychoanalysis and epistemology: mental development and formulation of theories].

This paper aims at studying from a psychoanalytical perspective the relationship between the acquisition of knowledge, the formulation of theories based on the generalization of such knowledge, and, what we consider to be an antecedent, the infantile sexual theories (IST). Psychoanalysis is also a psychology of normal psychic processes, among them creative activity which includes scientific thought. This is of interest to psychoanalysts and to epistemologists and paves the way to necessary interdisciplinary endeavors.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed1990

A proto-dictionary of psychoanalysis.

In this paper I take Freud's first published book, his monograph 'On aphasia', and look carefully at the terms he used in it, suggesting some later reappearances of the conception expressed by that particular word. There are several words that entered the analytic vocabulary with the monograph, indicating, as Stengel proposed, that the book 'laid the foundations of psychoanalysis'. I review the following words: association, divided attention, cathexis, complex, connection, physiological correlate, impulse to speak, memory-image, primary, representation, self-observation, spontaneous speech and transference.

Aphasia↗
PubMed1975

Clinical measurement in psychoanalysis: an approach.

Measurement of the complex phenomena in psychoanalysis is approached by defining interrelated elements in the analytic situation and specifying the range of their variation in scales which can be both generalized and made specific for an individual patient. Using this approach in transcripts of psychoanalytic sessions, we rate painful emotion, impairment of defensive maneuvers, and activation of threatening conflictual fantasies. This preliminary study involved rating of tape-recorded sessions by psychoanalytically oriented judges. Quantitative estimates appeared to relate in many ways to qualitative fluctuations in the patient's state. Such an approach may be helpful in developing more effective clinical theory about emotions, defensive processes, and transference fantasies.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Psychiatry and psychoanalysis: a crazy dialogue].

The relation between psychiatry and psychoanalysis has been and is complex and fertile, in the frame of coincidences and differences. The common sense will be the first point that will allow us to guide the reflection. The hermeneutic treatment of the sense and its opposite, the non sense, will open the way for enquiring a diversity of concepts: 1. A different use of the word. 2. The consequent destination between two ways of the truth. 3. It is extracted from the previous point two positions that I call: psychiatric volunteer and the psychoanalyst's desire. At the end of the article, we explore different positions, but not necessarily incompatible, referred to the suicide act risk.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

[Psychoanalysis and criminology prior to the therapeutic community].

From its very beginning, psychoanalysis dealt with delinquency on a theoretical as well as on a clinical level. This paper deals with pioneer contributions, from Freud to Friedlander and Reiwald in the late 1940's, which stressed traumatic milieus in early childhood and the possibilities to correct this experience in treatment. In terms of clinical practice, they offered casuistic material, but also provided important suggestions for contemporary forensic treatment.

Crime↗
PubMed1991

[Impoverishment of psychoanalysis. On the decline of psychoanalytic education].

Anyone wishing to practice the "impossible profession" must once again overcome the resistances that originally produced the insights of psychoanalysis. Training analysts and institute faculty members pass on their successful as well as their failed attempts to surmount these resistances to the next generation. Herein lies the danger that the quality of training may decline as well as the opportunity to enrich psychoanalytic knowledge.

Countertransference↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[A glossary of the terms used in psychoanalysis].

The psychoanalytic direction in psychopathology is considered to be necessary as an explanation of concept and methodology for the medical training concerning the study and the care of mental diseases. Irrespective of certain controverted opinions on the fund of concepts of psychoanalysis the consideration of a strict terminology belonging to this direction is necessary. In this respect a concise explanation of the meanings of a set of terms in the comments on some psychopathological states is useful.

Psychoanalysis↗