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PubMed2004

The unstimulated salivary flow rate after prolonged gum chewing.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether, after a prolonged period of gum chewing, the unstimulated salivary flow rate falls below the unstimulated flow rate before gum chewing. DESIGN: Six males and six females each collected whole saliva at intervals for up to 105 min on two separate days. On one control day they collected unstimulated saliva over the -10 to 0 and 90 to 105 min periods. On the other day, they made the same collections of unstimulated saliva but, in addition, chewed two tablets of Wrigley's peppermint-flavoured gum over the 0-90 min period. The data on flow rates were subjected to repeated-measures ANOVA and Duncan tests. RESULTS: The unstimulated flow rates in the -10 to 0 and 90 to 105 min periods were not significantly different on the same day or between days and the values were all significantly less (P<0.05) than the stimulated flow rates, while gum was being chewed. CONCLUSION: This study provided no evidence that the unstimulated salivary flow rate is reduced after prolonged gum chewing. Patients who complain of mouth dryness after prolonged gum chewing may have become accustomed to the larger volume of saliva present in the mouth during the gum chewing.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Olfactory classical conditioning in newborn mice.

Determining the behavioural phenotype of genetically altered mice is a valuable approach for elucidating the function of genes and their role in cognitive disorders. Methods for phenotyping newborn mice are scarce and generally confined to sensorimotor reflexes. Here, we describe a simple method for assessing associative abilities in newborn mice. We used a two-odour-choice classical conditioning paradigm in mice from the day of birth (post-natal age 0, P0) to P6. Acquisition required 20 trials: 10 trials during which the pups were placed over the conditioned stimulus (CS+) odour (lemon or peppermint) for 30s and simultaneously stroked gently with a paintbrush and 10 trials during which the pups were placed over the other odour (CS-) for 30s, without stroking. Then, the pups were subjected to five odour-preference trials to test for conditioning. This sequence of five trials was repeated after 5 and 24h to assess retention of the conditioned odour preference. During the immediate post-acquisition sequence, the pups spent significantly more time over the CS+ than over the CS- (p<0.0001). No extinction of the conditioned preference was observed during this test. No preference was observed after 5 or 24h, indicating that the conditioned response was promptly lost. Conditioning was effective as soon as P0-P1. Thus, conditioning may emerge in newborn mice sooner than previously reported. This paradigm is well suited to phenotyping of large samples of genetically altered mice and may shed light on the role for genes in paediatric cognitive impairments.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Sex-specific hemispheric differences in cortical activation to a bimodal odor.

Most odorants we experience in every day life are bimodal in that they activate both the main olfactory and the intranasal trigeminal system. Few studies have investigated whether true bimodal odorants are processed differently than unimodal odorants. The aim of the study was to address sex-dependent hemispheric differences in olfactory event-related potentials. Event-related potentials (ERP) of the bimodal stimulant peppermint oil were recorded in 34 healthy subjects (17 women). No sex-related differences in olfactory sensitivity, trigeminal sensitivity or hedonic ratings of the stimuli were found. Although perceived similarly by men and women, results indicated a sex-differentiated hemispheric response to bimodal odors. Women generally expressed larger amplitudes and longer latencies over their left hemisphere, whereas men demonstrated a similar pattern over their right hemisphere. This effect was most evident for the early sensory derived ERP components indicating a sex-dependent difference in the sensory processing of bimodal odors.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Rapid sequential heart-cut multidimensional gas chromatographic analysis.

A method is described which allows the sequential fast analysis of heart-cuts taken during the first column elution of an essential oil sample in a multidimensional gas chromatography experiment. In this investigation, a relatively short, narrow bore capillary column is used in the second dimension, with fast cryogenic modulation permitting rapid delivery of cryofocussed heart-cuts into the second column of the multidimensional arrangement. In this implementation, the total analysis time on the second column is of the order of 30 s, which is less than the duration of the sampled heart-cuts (1 min), with peak theoretical efficiencies of about 7000 m(-1). Thus, the method should allow on-line heart-cutting of as many discrete heart-cuts as one may require from the first dimension chromatogram, and so two-dimensional separation can be achieved for almost the whole sample in one single analysis without the need for repeat injections or cycling of the oven temperature. The method is demonstrated by the transfer and rapid re-injection of 1 min heart-cuts taken from an initial separation stage of peppermint essential oil. The cryofocussing and fast analysis step is shown to increase signal response by up to 40-fold. Total peak capacity in the described system is measured to be of the order of 1800, with capacities of about 20-30 for each 30 s second dimension analysis. By increasing the frequency of sampling to remove excessive (unused) time to develop the 2D separation, it should be possible to achieve peak capacities of 5000 or more baseline resolved peaks.

Chromatography, Gas↗
PubMed2006

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography in the analysis of volatile samples of natural origin: a multidisciplinary approach to evaluate the influence of second dimension column coated with mixed stationary phases on system orthogonality.

The study evaluates the influence of selectivity tuning of the stationary phase of the second dimension on the orthogonality of a comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC x GC) system. Two different sets of columns, providing independent and semi-independent separation mechanisms were used. The first consisted of a first dimension separating analytes on a volatility basis (i.e. a non-polar polydimethylsiloxane (OV1) column) combined with a second dimension separating by polarity, using columns coated with 100% polyethylene glycol (CW20M), CW20M/OV1 mixtures in ratios of 25-75%, and polydimethylsiloxane, 7% phenyl, 7% cyanopropyl (OV1701). The second set consisted of a first dimension separating analytes on a polarity basis (100% CW20M column) combined with a second dimension separating by volatility, consisting of columns coated with 100% OV1, OV1/CW20M mixtures in ratios of 25-75%, and 100% OV1701. Medium-complexity mixtures of natural origin (i.e. peppermint essential oil and a standard mixture of suspected allergens) consisting of components in a relatively limited range of molecular weights (MW) and volatilities, but belonging to different classes of compounds in a wide range of polarity (mono- and sesquiterpenoids, hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds) were analysed with the above sets of columns. Different approaches were used to evaluate peak spreading on the GC x GC separation plane and degree of orthogonality of the column sets, namely: (1) a Factor Analysis (FA) approach, estimating the correlation coefficients and spreading angles of the sample components in the two-dimensional chromatographic plane; (2) an Informational Theory (IT) approach, based on determining a group of parameters including: informational entropy, % synentropy and similarity (H); and (3) an approach based on estimating the amount of separation space used, i.e. a practical parameter that directly refers to the experimental separation plane of the GC x GC chromatogram. Results showed that peak spreading in the chromatographic plane, when CW20M and OV1 are combined in different ratios, can be predicted from retention mechanisms, and that the degree of orthogonality measured with different approaches, is consistent with the divergent nature, in terms of polarity of the stationary phases combined in the GC x GC system.

Allergens↗
PubMed2004

Phytoavailability and fractionation of copper, manganese, and zinc in soil following application of two composts to four crops.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of compost addition to soil on fractionation and bioavailability of Cu, Mn, and Zn to four crops. Soils growing Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris var. cicla L.) and basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) were amended (by volume) with 0, 20, 40, and 60% Source-Separated Municipal Solid Waste (SS-MSW) compost, and dill (Anethum graveolens L.) and peppermint (Mentha X piperita L.) were amended with 0, 20, 40, and 60% of high-Cu manure compost (by volume). The SS-MSW compost applications increased the concentration of Cu and Zn in all fractions, increased Mn in acid extractable (ACID), iron and manganese oxides (FeMnOX), and organic matter (OM) fractions, but decreased slightly exchangeable-Mn. Addition of 60% high-Cu manure compost to the soil increased Cu EXCH, ACID, FeMnOX, and OM fractions, but decreased EXCH-Mn, and did not change EXCH-Zn. Addition of both composts to soil reduced bioavailability and transfer factors for Cu and Zn. Our results suggest that mature SS-MSW and manure composts with excess Cu and Zn could be safely used as soil conditioners for agricultural crops.

Anethum graveolens↗
PubMed2006

Survey of herbal use by Kansas and Wisconsin WIC participants reveals moderate, appropriate use and identifies herbal education needs.

OBJECTIVE: To examine herbal use by a sample of low-income, nutritionally vulnerable children. DESIGN: Caregivers completed a survey of child and caregiver herbal usage practices. SUBJECTS/SETTING: A convenience sample of 2,562 caregivers to children participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in Kansas and Wisconsin who were attending a WIC clinic was selected. WIC project selection was random, with stratification for geographic and ethnic representation. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Herbal usage profiles were described with measures of central tendency. Groups were compared with a two-tailed independent t test and chi2 for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. RESULTS: Child herbal use was reported on 917 surveys, representing 1,363 children ranging in age from 1 week to 17.5 years; 820 were younger than age 5 years. Herb use was greater among Latino children (48.4% vs 31.4%) and caregivers (43.4% vs 37.2%). Caregivers had a mean age of 27.8+/-8.32 years and 38.8% (n=994) denoted using herbs. Herbs most commonly used by children were aloe vera, chamomile, garlic, peppermint, lavender, cranberry, ginger, echinacea, and lemon. Reasons for herbal use paralleled recommendations. Family (78.9%) and friends (32.9%) were predominant information sources. Herbs with safety issues, such as St John's wort, dong quai, and kava were used. Herbal use characteristics did not differ between states, but were unique for Latino clients. CONCLUSIONS: Herbal use by WIC children is mostly congruent with known indications; however, practices with potential to harm urge herbal education in WIC clinics, especially for Latinos.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Potentiation and prolongation of long-term odor memory in neonate rats using a phosphodiesterase inhibitor.

Cyclic AMP has been shown to have a critical role in learning and memory in invertebrates. Here we use the rat pup odor preference learning model in which odor acts as a conditioned stimulus and beta-adrenoceptor stimulation acts as an unconditioned stimulus to test the role of cyclic AMP in an associative mammalian paradigm. A phosphodiesterase inhibitor that prevents cyclic AMP breakdown (cilomilast) makes a low, learning-ineffective dose of a beta-adrenoceptor agonist (isoproterenol, 1mg/kg) an effective unconditioned stimulus in pup odor preference learning. A dose of the phosphodiesterase inhibitor (cilomilast, 1 mg/kg) that induces learning with a weak unconditioned stimulus interferes with learning using a normally optimal unconditioned stimulus (isoproterenol, 2 mg/kg). Cilomilast (3 mg/kg) paired with peppermint odor during learning, prolonged memory at least four times longer than without the drug (24 h vs. 96 h). These data demonstrate a causal role for cyclic AMP in the acquisition and duration of odor preference learning in the rat pup.

Adrenergic beta-Agonists↗
PubMed2005

Repelling properties of some plant materials on the tick Ixodes ricinus L.

The repellent effects on nymphal stages of Ixodes ricinus L. of some plant materials have been studied in the laboratory. The plant material consisted of an ethanolic extract from Achillea millefolium L., and volatile oils of birch and/or pine tar, citronella, cloves, eucalyptus, geranium, lavender, lily of the valley and peppermint. The most pronounced effects were observed for the oils of citronella, cloves and lily of the valley. They possessed repelling activities of the same magnitude as the reference repellent DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide). Some major constituents of these oils, e.g. citronellol and geraniol (oil of citronella and lily of the valley) and eugenol (oil of cloves) showed pronounced repelling effects. This was also the case for phenethyl alcohol, a minor component in the oil from lily of the valley.

Achillea↗
PubMed2006

STW 5 (Iberogast) and its individual herbal components modulate intestinal electrophysiology of mice.

STW 5 (Iberogast), a phytomedicine agent consisting of a fixed combination of nine individual plant extracts, is widely used in the treatment of dyspepsia and motility related disorders. Little if anything is known on the possible influence on electrophysiological properties of intestinal smooth muscle by which STW 5 causes its beneficial effects. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether herbal extracts influence electrophysiological parameters of large and small intestine. For this purpose intracellular recordings of smooth muscle cell (SMC) of the circular muscle layer of different parts of mouse intestine were performed using standard microelectrode techniques. The resting membrane potential (RMP), excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in proximal colon, the frequency and the amplitude of slow waves in small intestine were investigated. The RMP of SMC was -46.4+/-3.8 mV, n=11 in the colon and -59+/-1.3 mV, n=15 in small intestine. STW 5 significantly depolarized the RMP of colonic (16.6+/-2.2 mV, n=6, p<0.05) and jejunal (9.6+/-1.6 mV, n=7, p<0.05) SMC. This depolarizing effect can be mainly attributed to the constituents of chamomile flower, Angelica root and greater celandine herb. Following the electrical field stimulations (EFSs), junction potentials are influenced in a distinct manner. Excitatory junctions potentials (EJPs) of the colon were not significantly reduced (13.1+/-4.8 vs. 10.1+/-2.8 n.s., n=6) but fast (fIJP) and slow (sIJP) inhibitory junction potentials of the murine colon are reduced significantly by STW 5 (fIJP: 21.6+/-8.1 vs. 11.6+/-2.1 and sIJP: 12.1+/-3.3 vs. 6.1+/-1.3 n=6, p<0.05). The basal frequency of small intestinal slow waves was 39.5+/-1.4 min(-1) and the amplitude was 23.1+/-0.9 mV, n=15. STW 5 significantly reduced amplitude and frequency of the slow waves (11.7+/-0.8 mV; 33.5+/-3.4 min(-1), n=6, p<0.05). This effect on slow waves represents the summation of effects of the nine individual phytoextracts. Whereas Angelica root and chamomile flower completely blocked the slow wave activity, bitter candy tuft increased the frequency and amplitude, greater celandine herb reduced frequency and amplitude of the slow wave, peppermint leaf reduced frequency and left amplitude unchanged and liquorice root, caraway fruit and lemon balm leaf had no effects in basic electrophysiological properties of SMC. This study demonstrates that STW 5 causes changes in SMC RMP, excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission and slow wave rhythmicity. These effects represent a summation effect of different constituents of this phytotherapeuticum and prove that STW 5 has characteristic effects on intestinal electrophysiology.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Pharmaceutical prerequisites for a multi-target therapy.

The quality of a phytomedicine is defined by the quality of the herbal drug, the manufacturing of the drug preparations and the properties of the finished product, taking into account the special requirements of the individual herbal species in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) standards [2003. Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use. Eudralex, vol. 4 (2003/94/EC)]. The quality control of the complete process is based on pharmacognostic methods, characteristic fingerprint chromatograms, defined amounts of marker substances, physicochemical characteristics and microbiological monitoring. For a herbal multi-component preparation used in multi-target therapy, these pharmaceutical prerequisites have to be ensured for all components and for their combination, as is exemplified by Iberogast((R)) (STW 5) a fixed combination of hydroethanolic extracts of bitter candytuft (Iberis amara), angelica root (Angelicae radix), milk thistle fruit (Silybi mariani fructus), celandine herb (Chelidonii herba), caraway fruit (Carvi fructus), liquorice root (Liquiritiae radix), peppermint herb (Menthae piperitae folium), balm leaf (Melissae folium) and chamomile flower (Matricariae flos) using in the therapy of gastrointestinal complaints (Rösch et al., 2006). The prerequisites for the quality of each of its components according to actual standards are at first the cultivation of the plant material according to the Guidelines for Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) conditions of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants [1998. Z. Arzn. Gew. Pfl. 3, 166-178] to yield a defined raw material of high quality. Characteristic compounds of the extracts had to be identified and different analytical methods such as HPLC, with low coefficients of variation had to be developed to analyze each of the standardized ethanolic extracts and the finished product. At the example of the extract of I. amara these necessary investigations are described. The variability of the plant material in its natural habitats, the identification of characteristic compounds and exemplary chromatograms for fingerprint evaluation and quantification are shown. These data are required for characterization of the profile of the active substances in the finished product.

Brassicaceae↗
PubMed2006

Antioxidative properties of the gastrointestinal phytopharmaceutical remedy STW 5 (Iberogast).

Since inflammation is a common mechanism of many gastrointestinal diseases, reactive oxygen metabolites may play an important role in their pathophysiology. Therefore it is interesting to know, whether phytopharmaceuticals known to modulate gastrointestinal motor function reveal also antioxidative properties. We tested STW 5 (Iberogast), its constituent nine different plant extracts, and some isolated compounds which are present in STW 5 for characterizing their antioxidative and radical quenching activities. The test assays consisted in pure chemical and complex cellular systems in which different types of reactive species were produced. Quantification of the effects was based on chemiluminescence reactions. The results show that all extracts contribute to the effect of the complete remedy STW 5, in the chemical systems in a strongly additive manner, in the cellular systems in a supraadditive manner. The largest contributions resulted from the extracts from peppermint and melissa leaves. Comparison of effects from isolated phytochemical compounds from the extracts with that of the extracts itself shows that usually the extract is more effective than the monosubstance which indicates also the synergism within the whole plant extracts. This means that the plant extracts present in STW 5 provide strong radical quenching activities that could also be involved in the therapeutic gastrointestinal actions.

Free Radical Scavengers↗
PubMed2006

Mechanisms involved in the gastro-protective effect of STW 5 (Iberogast) and its components against ulcers and rebound acidity.

The protective effect of a commercial preparation (STW 5, Iberogast), containing the extracts of bitter candy tuft, lemon balm leaf, chamomile flower, caraway fruit, peppermint leaf, liquorice root, Angelica root, milk thistle fruit and greater celandine herb, against the development of gastric ulcers was previously reported in an earlier publication (Khayyal et al., 2001). All extracts produced a dose dependent anti-ulcerogenic effect associated with a reduced acid output, an increased mucin secretion, an increase in prostaglandin E(2) release and a decrease in leukotrienes. The effect on pepsin content was not uniform and did not seem to bear a relationship with the anti-ulcerogenic activity. The best effects were observed with the combined formulation, STW 5. Furthermore, the effect of the latter in protecting against the development of rebound gastric acidity was examined experimentally in rats and compared with the effect of some commercial antacid preparations (Rennie, Talcid and Maaloxan). A model of testing rebound acidity was developed by inducing a marginal increase in gastric acidity through the administration of indomethacin, in such a way that it could be easily neutralized, allowing any eventual secondary increase in acidity to be measured within a few hours of administration. In addition, the serum gastrin level was measured after drug treatment to establish any correlation between it and any rebound acidity. The results obtained demonstrated that STW 5 did not only lower the gastric acidity as effectively as the commercial antacid, but it was more effective in inhibiting the secondary hyperacidity. Moreover, STW 5 was capable of inhibiting the serum gastrin level in rats, an effect which ran parallel to its lowering effect on gastric acid production.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Classical conditioning and conditionability of insulin and glucose effects in healthy humans.

We examined whether the effects of intravenously injected insulin and glucose (the physiological endogenous insulin production stimulus) could be classically conditioned in healthy humans. We expected a conditioned blood glucose decrease to a conditioned stimulus (CS) previously paired with insulin and an, albeit lower, blood glucose decrease to a CS paired with glucose injection. In addition, we analyzed glucoregulatory hormone and symptom conditionability. Thirty healthy males were divided into three groups and were given the CS and an intravenous injection of either insulin (0.05 IU/kg) in Group 1, glucose (15%, 0.5 g/kg) in Group 2, or placebo [physiological saline (0.9%)] in Group 3 during the acquisition phase on 4 days. All participants were given the olfactory CS (rosewood-peppermint smell) and placebo injection on Day 5 (test). On Day 5, the total blood glucose decrease tended to be higher in Group 1 than in Group 3 (P<.10), especially at CS presentation (P<.10) and previous unconditioned hypoglycemia time-point (P<.05). The conditioned blood glucose decrease was statistically nonsignificant in Group 2, but shortly after CS presentation, insulin level and blood glucose changes were negatively correlated in Groups 1 and 2 in contrast to positive correlation in Group 3. Furthermore, Group 1 showed an increase in noradrenaline (P<.05), a temporarily delayed increase in growth hormone (GH; P<.05), and an increase of autonomic and neuroglycopenic symptoms, reaching a medium and small effect size, respectively. Group 2 responded with an increase in cortisol (P<.01) and neuroglycopenic symptoms (P<.05) at the time-point of the previous unconditioned blood glucose minimum. To conclude, the effects of exogenously applied insulin can be conditioned in a reliable way. In correspondence with the lower intensity of the unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioning effects with glucose-and, thus, endogenously produced insulin-are weaker but also reflect the actions of central insulin. Future studies will examine the diverse actions of insulin within the brain further.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Olfactory reflexes in the newborn infant.

Clinical responses to peppermint odor were observed in 100 healthy term and preterm infants during active sleep on two successive days. Thirty-six asphyxiated term infants and three infants with holoprosencephaly also were tested. Olfactory reflexes were regularly elicited in normal infants after 32 weeks' gestation, but some premature infants as young as 28 weeks also responded. Responses included initiation of sucking and arousal-withdrawal. Habituation occurred after two or three trials. A Moro response was seen only in a few asphyxiated infants; loss of olfactory reflexes appeared to parallel suppression of brainstem reflexes. Olfactory reflexes are useful in excluding cerebral malformations associated with agenesis of the olfactory bulbs.

Asphyxia Neonatorum↗
PubMed1997

Conditioned insulin and blood sugar responses in humans in relation to binge eating.

This study proposed to demonstrate a classically conditioned blood sugar decrease in humans and to clarify its relevance for binge eating. Six conditioning trials were run in healthy females. The conditioned stimulus (CS) was a compound peppermint flavor/fragrance, whereas the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) consisted of 50 g of oral glucose. Control subjects received an aspartame drink as the UCS. Ad lib glucose intake, blood parameters, and subjective craving were monitored before and after conditioning. Results showed that the experimental group failed to show conditioned blood sugar and glucagon decreases or C-Peptide increases. Although an increased insulin response was found in the experimental group, the effect size did not exceed that of spontaneous fluctuations. No increases in craving for sweet substances were found. An impressive increase (mean: 78%) in glucose intake after conditioning was found in both conditions, as well as in a subsequently run third condition with plain water as the UCS. The increased glucose intake probably resulted from an initial neophobia to the laboratory setting that subsided as subjects had experienced more lab sessions. Importantly, because no conditioned hypoglycemia occurred in the present study, its relationship with subjectively experienced craving for sweet substance could not be determined.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Effect of (+)-pulegone and other oil components of Mentha x Piperita on cucumber respiration.

Peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.) essential oil and main components were assessed for their ability to interfere with plant respiratory functions. Tests were conducted on both root segments and mitochondria isolated by etiolated seedlings of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Total essential oil inhibited 50% of root and mitochondrial respiration (IC50) when used at 324 and 593 ppm, respectively. (+)-Pulegone was the most toxic compound, with a 0.08 and 0.12 mM IC50 for root and mitochondrial respiration, respectively. (-)-Menthone. followed (+)-pulegone in its inhibitory action (IC50 values of 1.11 and 2.30 mM for root and mitochondrial respiration respectively), whereas (-)-menthol was the less inhibitory compound (IC50 values of 1.85 and 3.80 mM respectively). A positive correlation was found for (+)-pulegone, (-)-menthone and (-)-menthol between water solubility and respiratory inhibition. The uncoupling agent. carbonyl-cyanide-m-chlorophenyl-hydrazone (CCCP), lowered (-)-menthol and (-)menthone inhibition and annulled (+)-pulegone inhibition of mitochondrial respiration, whereas salicyl-hydroxamic acid (SHAM) 2-hydroxybenzohydroxamic acid, the alternative oxidase (AO) inhibitor, increased (-)-menthone inhibition and annulled both (+)-pulegone and (-)-menthol inhibitory activity. The possible interaction of (-)-pulegone and (-)-menthol with AO and the mechanism of action of(+)-pulegone, (-)-menthone and (-)-menthol on mitochondrial respiration are discussed.

Cucumis sativus↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The effect of drink familiarity on tolerance to alcohol.

Cues associated with familiar alcoholic drinks such as beer may, through repeated association with the unconditioned stimulus properties of alcohol, acquire the status of classically conditioned stimuli. It has been proposed that such drug-related conditioned stimuli mediate drug tolerance. Thus, the aim of the present experiment was to test this proposition on cognitive, subjective, and psychophysiological indicators of alcohol tolerance using human subjects. Two groups of subjects received alcohol in the form of a familiar drink (beer) or an unfamiliar drink (blue peppermint mixture). Both drinks contained the same dose of alcohol and were consumed at the same rate. Although conditioned heart rate and skin conductance responses occurring while subjects looked at and tasted the test drinks were weak, there were strong indicators of conditioned tolerance on the performance measures following consumption. Subjects who consumed the unfamiliar drink were significantly poorer on cognitive and motor tasks, and they rated themselves more intoxicated than did those who consumed the familiar drink.

Adolescent↗