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PubMed1990

Parents' awareness of their unborn infant in the third trimester.

An exploratory, grounded-theory study revealed that parents develop a sense of their unborn infant's presence in an individualized manner. Four coexisting levels of cognitive and sensory awareness were delineated from a sample of primiparous and multiparous parents during the third trimester of pregnancy: awareness of the infant as an idea, awareness of the infant's presence, awareness of specific infant behavior, and awareness of the infant's interactive ability. Mothers controlled fathers' access to the unborn infant. Not all mothers interacted with their infant during pregnancy, indicating variability in style. These findings challenge current understanding of prenatal attachment.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Fantasy formation: a child analyst's perspective.

Unconscious fantasy is the principal unit of psychoanalytic investigation. Though individual fantasies, either conscious or unconscious, may emphasize drive, defense, or superego interests, all fantasy life develops from a limited number of themes; these themes concern drive-related issues, experiences of helplessness, or combinations of both. Fantasy formation and fantasy content undergo developmental change. Sensorimotor, behavioral memories occur prior to fantasy and are influential in determining repetitive behavioral enactments. The complexities of infant behavior do not require the postulation of fantasy or representational memory. A complex, innate, instinctual organization of the newborn, similar in many respects to that of other newborn mammals, and distinct from the psychological organization of the older infant, is suggested as an explanation of these phenomena.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1981

Development of infant independence in a captive group of lowland gorillas.

In March 1976, 3 lowlands gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) were born to primiparous females living with an adult male in a large compound at the field station of the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center of Emory University. Observations of parent and infant behavior began at the birth of the infants, using several methods of data collection. This report focuses on the development of independence in these infants over the 1st 1 1/2 years of life. As expected, measures of mother-infant contact and proximity decreased with age. Several measures suggested that infant independence developed as an interactive process between mothers and infants, with primary responsibility changing over the months of study. Maternal behaviors that served to maintain mother-infant contact were found to decrease with age, with an eventual shift to infant responsibility for contact maintenance. Additionally, the adult male appeared to influence developing independence as reflected in the maternal protectiveness evoked by his behavior.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

The effect of early extended contact on father-newborn interaction.

Forty-eight middle-class fathers having their first child were divided into three groups: An Experimental Group received a demonstration of physical and behavioral characteristics of their own infants resulting in a doubling of the usual time for interaction during the first two days. A Hospital Group spent the same amount of time viewing a prepared videotape of the same characteristics of a newborn infant who was not theirs. An Office Control Group, without experimental intervention, was recruited to control for effects of demand characteristics of the experimental situation. All three groups attended their infants' one-month well-baby examination where out-come measures were obtained. Analyses of variance showed no differences between groups on demographic or pregnancy variables. Further, 108 analyses of variance for 36 father and infant behaviors scored from videotapes did not reveal significant group differences. It is argued that in addition to amount of early contact and sex of parent, crucial socioeconomic factors need to be considered.

Child Development↗

PubMed2005

Influence of supine sleep positioning on early motor milestone acquisition.

This study aimed to determine whether supine sleep-positioned infants have delayed motor skills at age 4 and 6 months, and if delays are associated with decreased exposure to prone position. One 4 and one 6-month-old sample of healthy infants born at term were recruited. Motor assessments included the Peabody Developmental Motor Scale (PDMS) and Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS). Parents completed an infant behavior diary for 3 consecutive days. Seventy-one 4-month-old infants were assessed (38 males; mean age 4.4 mo, standard deviation [SD] 0.2). Mean motor scores were close to normative standards (AIMS 47.7, SD 19.6; PDMS gross motor quotient [GMQ] 96.3, SD 6.5; PDMS fine motor quotient [FMQ] 99.2, SD 4.8). No infant scored below cut-off values used to identify motor delay. Milestones less likely to be achieved included extended arm support in prone, hands to feet in supine, and sitting with arm support. Exposure to 'tummy time' while awake was correlated with AIMS scores (r = 0.38, p < 0.01). F i fty 6-month-old infants were assessed (21 males; mean age 6.4 mo, SD 0.4). Mean scores were shifted down for all scales, and as much as 1 SD for PDMS (AIMS 44.5, SD 21.6; PDMS GMQ 85.7, SD 7.6; PDMS FMQ 88.9, SD 9.0). Only 22% of 6-month-olds could sit without arm support versus 50% expected in a normative sample. Remarkably, 22% of our sample exhibited gross motor delays (quotient <78). Tummy time (awake) was significantly associated with the AIMS (r = 0.64) and PDMS GMQ (r = 0.55) and FMQ (r = 0.33) quotients, even after adjusting for confounders. Typically developing infants who were sleep-positioned in supine had delayed motor development by age 6 months, and this was significantly associated with limited exposure to awake prone positioning. This has important implications for interpreting motor assessments of infants at risk and for preventing inappropriate referrals.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2005

Maternal ratings of temperamental characteristics of healthy premature infants are indistinguishable from those of full-term infants.

AIM: To investigate whether prematurity itself, if not accompanied with serious medical risks, affects early temperamental characteristics, as measured by maternal ratings. METHODS: Mothers' reports on temperamental characteristics of 104 low-risk, healthy premature infants were compared with those from a comparable sample of 120 full-term infants. Mothers completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) when their infants were 6 or 12 months old (corrected for prematurity for premature infants). RESULTS: Two groups of infants significantly differed only in one of six IBQ scales, the Activity Level scale, with premature infants being rated by their mothers as more active than full-term infants (ANOVA, P=0.026). Most of the interactions of prematurity with age and sex were insignificant, as well as the main effects of age and sex. Furthermore, effect sizes (Cohen's d) were relatively small, even for statistically significant effects. Correlation analyses performed within the premature sample showed that premature infants' gestational ages at birth did not significantly correlate with IBQ scales, except with Duration of Orienting scale, on which more premature infants were rated as having shorter periods of orienting (r=0.21, P=0.036). CONCLUSION: Ratings of premature infants' mothers on five out of six temperament dimensions measured in the study were indistinguishable from those of full-term infants' mothers. As the study had high power of achieving significant effects of prematurity if they really existed, it can be concluded that prematurity per se, if not accompanied with serious medical problems, did not have profound influence on mothers' ratings of infant temperament.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2000

Colic in breast-milk-fed infants: treatment by temporary substitution of neocate infant formula.

Infant colic is a common problem characterized by excessive crying and fussing. We examined whether colic symptoms of exclusively breast-milk-fed infants would be improved by temporary substitution of Neocate, an amino acid-based infant formula, for breast milk. Six infants with colic were studied using Barr-type infant behavior diaries for a 3-5 d baseline period while they continued exclusive breast-milk-feeding, followed by a 4-8 d intervention period of exclusive Neocate feeding. All infants showed improvement in distressed behavior during intervention; five of the six improved within 1-2 d. For the period after 1 d of Neocate feeding, the total recorded crying and fussing time was reduced by an average of 42%, representing a decrease of 1.0 to 3.1 h daily. A significant difference was found between cry and fuss time at baseline versus during exclusive Neocate use. Concurrent with Neocate intervention, mothers strictly avoided all milk and dairy products. After colic symptoms improved, infants were reintroduced to breast milk, which was reasonably well tolerated in four of the six infants. Two infants had rapid recurrences of crying and fussing upon return to breastfeeding and required an additional period of Neocate feedings before subsequent reintroduction to breastfeeding. All infants exhibited colic symptoms when directly or indirectly challenged with bovine IgG (BGG), suggesting that BGG may play an etiologic role in colic. We propose that a brief intervention with Neocate, coupled with strict maternal avoidance of milk and dairy products under direct supervision of a lactation consultant, may be an effective treatment for colic in some breast-milk-fed infants.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Infant physiologic and behavioral organization during swaddled versus unswaddled weighing.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of blanket swaddling during weighing on the physiologic and behavioral responses of preterm infants. STUDY DESIGN: A repeated-measures crossover design was used in a children's hospital intensive care nursery setting. Fourteen preterm infants with a mean gestational age of 32 weeks and mean weight of 1427 gm were weighed on two consecutive nights. A random start approach was used to determine initial order of swaddled or unswaddled weights. Effects of swaddled and unswaddled weighing were examined with use of the Assessment of Behavioral Systems Organization scales. Repeated-measures analysis of variance was used for analysis. RESULTS: Contrasts done on significant treatment-period interactions indicated that when swaddled, infants showed less physiologic distress (p < 0.002), better motor organization (p < 0.001), and more effective self-regulatory ability (p < 0.037) than when unswaddled during weighing. CONCLUSIONS: Swaddled weighing may decrease physiologic and behavioral distress in preterm infants.

Body Weight↗

PubMed1981

Mother-infant feeding interaction and weight gain in the first month of life.

This study tests the hypothesis that maternal and infant behaviors during a feed at one month of life co-varies with the infant's weight gain in the 30 days since birth. Thirty mothers-infant pairs were observed via videotape. Each of the tapes was analyzed, with a behavioral coding system adapted for this purpose. A stepwise regression statistical model showed that a statistically significant portion of the weight gain variance was explained by nutritionally functional and social communication behaviors in the mother and social communication behaviors in the infant. These data suggest that a lack of synchrony between the caretaker and the infant during feeding may imperil the infant's growth process.

Birth Weight↗

PubMed2005

Infants' responses to arm restraint at 2 and 6 months: a longitudinal study.

This study examined the continuity, stability, and change of infants' responses to a frustrating event (i.e., arm restraint) between 2 and 6 months in terms of both negative reactivity and its regulation. Fifty-two healthy, full-term infants and their mothers participated in an arm restraint procedure. Infant behaviors were observed and coded at 3-s intervals. The results showed that infants' reactivity to frustration and their ability to regulate such reactivity significantly changed in level over time. Individual differences in frustration reactivity were stable across the two ages; two regulatory behaviors (i.e., orientation to mother and avoidance) could be observed in the same percentage of babies at both 2 and 6 months. At 6 months, several significant associations between frustration reactivity and infant regulatory behaviors emerged. These findings suggest that the arm restraint procedure may be usefully employed to study individual differences in infants as young as 2 months of age.

Attention↗

PubMed2004

The mother-infant relationship in single, cohabiting, and married families: a case for marriage?

Single-mother, cohabiting 2-parent, and married 2-parent families with infants were compared on maternal and infant behavior, Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) scores, and infant's security of attachment. Married mothers and their infants demonstrated more positive behavior and received higher HOME scores when the infant was 6 and 15 months old than did their cohabiting and single counterparts. Married families were also better off than single and cohabiting families on several demographic, parent personality, financial, and social context measures. Single and cohabiting families were similar across most measures. Selection variables (maternal age, ethnic group, and education) explained much, but not all, of the family structure differences in the mother-infant relationship and the HOME. Maternal psychological adjustment, attitudes about child rearing, income, and social support explained little of the family structure variation, suggesting that characteristics that preceded marriage and conception were important determinants of family structure differences.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Time sampling: a methodological critique.

Numerous developmental studies of social behavior employ an observational technique called time sampling. This technique is used to estimate the frequencies and proportions of time that actual behaviors occur and to measure group or individual differences. By contrasting time sampling to continuous sampling, we demonstrate that (a) time sampling is inaccurate for estimating actual durations or frequencies of behavior, and (b) resulting individual and/or group differences can change depending on whether time sampling or continuous sampling is used. Error rates are particularly high when the total bout lengths of the actual behaviors are short (as in mother-infant interactions) and/or when interval length is long. Because the majority of mother and infant behaviors are short in bout length (less than 60 sec), when percent error is the greatest, we suggest that alternative sampling methods that have proven validity be used in future studies (e.g., scan, point, or continuous sampling).

Behavior↗

PubMed1999

Introduction of a recorded health information line into a pediatric practice.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the utilization, satisfaction, and parental health-seeking behavior associated with the introduction of the Parent Advice Line (PAL), a collection of 278 recorded health-related messages accessible by telephone, into a private practice. DESIGN: Booklets listing PAL topics were mailed to eligible families, and utilization data were collected for all incoming PAL calls from June to August 1996. Satisfaction and effect on health-seeking behavior were assessed using a recorded questionnaire appended to each call (n = 561) and a randomized telephone questionnaire (n = 821). SETTING: A suburban, 7-pediatrician practice in Colorado. PATIENTS: Families with children younger than 12 years seen in the practice within 2 years (N = 8365). RESULTS: Of families who reported receiving the mailed PAL booklet, 32% used PAL. Sixty percent of PAL calls were placed during office hours, 21% from 5 PM to 9 PM, and 8% after midnight; call volume was higher on weekdays than on weekend days (25 calls per day vs 10 calls per day, respectively; P<.05 by chi2 test). The 5 most commonly requested topic categories were toilet training, sexual development, discipline problems, sleep problems, and teenage behavior. Preventive care topics predominated in infants, behavioral topics in preschool children, and acute illness topics in school-aged children. Of users, 88% were satisfied or very satisfied and 98% said that they would use PAL again. Respondents to the 2 questionnaires reported that use of PAL made a call or visit to their child's physician unnecessary 58% to 69% and 61% to 70% of the time, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The PAL was used primarily to access information about behavioral and developmental issues during office hours. Its use was associated with high rates of satisfaction and, by parental report, decreased calls or visits to a physician.

Adult↗

PubMed1980

Maternal behavior during breast- and bottle-feeding.

Filmed records of an entire feeding session of a population of breast-and bottle-fed human infants were made at approximately 1-month intervals. The occurence of maternal and infant behavior is related to the infant's birth weight during the first week of life only in bottle-fed infants; the greater the mother's response, the less the small infant consumes. There are clear behavioral differences between bottle- and breast-feeding which stem from inherent characteristics of the technique of feeding. Breast-feeding allows the infant to have more control during the feed, whereas in the bottle-feeding, the mother has more control. This concept of control is discussed in terms of its implications for somatic growth and the development of obesity in relation to the advice and training of health professionals.

Birth Weight↗

PubMed1977

The effect of visual feedback of the hand on the reaching and retrieval behavior of young infants.

Reaching and retrieving, with and without visual feedback of the hand, were observed in 50 infants ranging in age from 2 1/2 to 6 1/2 months. Failure, to see the hand did not completely inhibit reaching and retrieving, although reaching and retrieving were reduced in this situation for infants 5 1/2 months and older. It was hypothesized that infants of this age expected to see their hands within their visual fields. When this expectation was not met, the infant's ongoing behavior was disrupted.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1989

A tool for educating parents about their premature infants.

This study examined the effectiveness of intervening with parents of premature infants by showing them examples of newborns' sensory, perceptual, and social capabilities. Fourteen couples and their premature infants, divided into an intervention group and a nonintervention group, were studied. Parents in the intervention group observed an assessment of premature infant behavior (APIB) examination and received feedback from the examiner prior to completing a parental assessment battery; the nonintervention group did not observe the APIB examination until after they completed the assessment battery. The assessment battery measured parental anxiety, perceptions, and awareness of neonatal behavior. Comparisons between the two groups revealed (a) intervention fathers reported significantly lower anxiety than did nonintervention fathers, (b) intervention mothers and fathers had significantly more realistic perceptions of their newborn compared to nonintervention parents, and (c) intervention mothers had significantly more accurate awareness of their newborns' abilities than nonintervention mothers, and intervention fathers had higher, but nonsignificant, awareness scores compared to nonintervention fathers. Having parents observe the administration of the APIB may be an effective way to educate them about their premature infant's behavior.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Covariation of parental judgments of child behavioral characteristics with a developmental scale and observation of behaviors].

The aim of the present study is the validation of a German questionnaire that was designed to assess "infant temperament" by parental judgement. The questionnaire represents an adaptation of Rothbart's "Infant Behavior Questionnaire" (IBQ). It was studied whether the parental judgements concerning positive emotionality, negative emotionality/irritability, motor activity and soothability of the infant are correlated to corresponding observed child behavior. Furthermore we tried to determine influences of parental characteristics on their judgements. 31 First-born healthy 4 months old infants were observed in their home environment as well as in the video laboratory of our institute. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Mental Scale) were applied. The mothers filled in the Temperament Questionnaire and scales to assess maternal depression and anxiety. We yielded the expected significant correlations for the scales measuring positive and negative emotionality, and motor activity with the observed behavioral characteristics of the infants. Independent of these results the mothers' judgements of their infant's positive and negative emotionality was associated with maternal depression. We can therefore conclude that the two scales contain subjective and objective elements that are independent of each other.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Ontogeny in the family.

When ontogeny takes place in a family, and parents provide essential resources for development, the parents become an environmental component to the development of a wide range of offspring traits. Because differences among parents may partly reflect genetic variation, this environmental component contains genes and may itself evolve. Also, when offspring play an active role in family interactions, offspring become a social environmental component to parents, affecting their behavior in turn, which potentially results in reciprocal social selection. Thus, an evolutionary process of coadaptation to family life, additionally driven by conflicts of interests, may have shaped the expression and development patterns underlying infant behaviors. The complex genetics arising from family interactions can be formalized by extending standard quantitative genetic models. These models demonstrate how the explicit consideration of the family environment can profoundly alter both the expression and evolutionary response to selection of behaviors involved in family interactions. Behavioral genetic studies have begun to unravel the complex genetics underlying infant solicitation behaviors and parental provisioning, although many focus on one side of the interaction. A genetic analysis incorporating interactions among family members explicitly may be critical because the genes underlying the expression of parental provisioning indirectly affect offspring behaviors, and vice versa.

Child↗