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PubMed1982

Gastrointestinal factors in hunger and satiety.

The evidence for the participation of signals from the gastrointestinal tract in hunger and satiety is reviewed. Various methods of subjecting only certain portions of the gastrointestinal tract to food are described including sham feeding, crossing of the intestines of two animals, and intragastric, intraduodenal and intravenous feeding. These methods have revealed that animals eat more when only the mouth is exposed to food, but consume less when food enters the stomach directly and still less when feeding themselves intravenously. The role of the stomach in satiety is discussed in relation to the results of the many experiments in which intragastric loads were administered. These experiments generally revealed that gastric loads suppressed intake in proportion to their caloric value, but that compensation was not precise. A similar analysis is made of the role of the intestines in satiety. These studies present evidence for osmoreceptors and glucoreceptors, distention, and pressure, all of which may participate in satiety. The numerous effects of vagotomy on food intake are reviewed and an attempt is made to separate afferent from efferent effects and vagal effects from nonspecific surgical injury. The role of other afferents is explored. A brief survey of the most recent studies on humoral factors indicates that cholecystokinin is probably acting as a satiety agent, but its mode of action remains unknown. The changes in the gastrointestinal tract that accompany an increase or decrease in food intake reveal adaptive changes that occur in the organ. The evidence for gastrointestinal factors in satiety of the suckling animal is presented. Finally, a hypothesis is presented in which the various factors that bring a meal to an end are included. Preabsorptive satiety may consist of multiple factors which probably include signals from osmoreceptors and possibly other chemoreceptors in the upper small intestine. The signals from these receptors are neural while other products of digestion stimulate the release of humoral agents, such as cholecystokinin, which may act locally, in the liver, or on the central nervous system. Stretch or distention of the intestines at various locations may also contribute to preabsorptive satiety.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed1993

A role for hippocampus in the utilization of hunger signals.

The hippocampus is generally regarded as an important anatomical substrate for learning and memory (e.g., Eichenbaum, Otto, & Cohen, Behavioral and Neural Biology, 57, 2-36, 1992; Squire, Psychological Review, 99, 195-231, 1992). In the present research, we provide evidence that the hippocampus is also involved with another function--utilization of hunger state signals. Rats with selective ibotenate lesions of the hippocampus were found to be impaired in their ability to discriminate between the interoceptive sensory consequences of food deprivation and satiation. At the same time the ability of these rats to discriminate between different exteroceptive cues was unaffected. These results suggest that deficits in discriminative performance were specific to interoceptive state stimuli. In addition, hippocampal-damaged rats also seemed unable to use their food deprivation stimuli as signals to engage in normal feeding behavior. Our results argue that although the hippocampus may be important for learning and memory processes, it also deserves consideration as a neural substrate for the regulation of food intake and perhaps other functions which involve interoceptive signals.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Vocal fundamental frequency characteristics of infant hunger cries: birth to 12 months.

The vocal fundamental frequency (Fo) characteristics of four infants' hunger cries are reported. The infants were audio recorded at monthly intervals during the first year of life. In general, each infant's Fo increased across the one-year period. The increase in Fo was attributed to the transition from early reflexive crying to intentional vocalization behavior, rather than anatomical and physiological growth influences. Discussion focuses on the regulation of infant crying behavior across the first year of life, as well as the diagnostic implications of these findings.

Aging↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Satiety, hunger and regional brain content of cholecystokinin/gastrin and met-enkephalin immunoreactivity in sheep.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) and met-enkephalin (MEK) related peptides have been shown to alter feeding behavior subsequent to their injection into the peripheral circulation or directly into the brains of several species. To evaluate the potential role of endogenous brain pools of these peptides in feeding, groups of sheep were sacrificed either immediately following a meal (satiated) or after various intervals of food deprivation (hungry). Content of CCK-gastrin immunoreactivity in the anterior hypothalami of satiated sheep was elevated compared to 2, 4, or 24 hours of food deprivation. Content of MEK increased progressively with longer intervals of fasting (4 and 24 hours) in the amygdala and basomedial hypothalamus, whereas olfactory bulb content decreased with a similar time course. The results support a potential role for anterior hypothalamic CCK/gastrin in behaviors of satiety, whereas MEK neurons of limbic/rhinencephalic regions appear to form part of a separate circuit gradually activated by increasing hunger. Results are discussed in terms of potential target regions of the peptides, as well as the regional levels and feeding response of sheep as compared to available data from other species.

Amygdala↗

PubMed2004

Effects of short-term overfeeding on hunger, satiety, and energy intake in thin and reduced-obese individuals.

BACKGROUND: Certain individuals appear to be resistant to weight gain in an obesigenic environment, yet the mechanisms for this adaptation are unclear. These individuals may sense positive energy balance more appropriately than those individuals prone to weight gain. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Thirteen thin (7 women, 6 men) and 9 reduced-obese (5 women, 4 men) individuals were studied. Measures of intake were obtained using visual analog scales before and after each meal during eucaloric feeding and during three days of 50% overfeeding. Ad libitum energy intake was measured post-overfeeding. RESULTS: Overfeeding resulted in a significant reduction in pre-meal hunger in the thin (68+/-6 to 41+/-6 mm, p<0.0001) compared to the reduced-obese individuals (63+/-7 to 65+/-7 mm, p=0.67). There was a significantly greater increase (p=0.0016) in post-meal satiety scores during overfeeding in the thin (65+/-4 to 88+/-4 mm, p<0.0001) compared to the reduced-obese individuals (72+/-5 to 80+/-5 mm, p=0.04). Thin women had a 30% reduction in daily energy intake (1831+/-47 to 1273+/-79 kcal/day, p=0.005) after overfeeding while no difference was seen in the thin men or reduced-obese group. DISCUSSION: Thin individuals appear to sense positive energy balance more appropriately with changes in measures of intake than reduced-obese individuals. These findings are especially true in thin women.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2005

Effects on hunger and satiety, perceived portion size and pleasantness of taste of varying the portion size of foods: a brief review of selected studies.

The portion size of foods has been identified as an important environmental factor known to affect short-term energy intake. Experiments that were conducted both in the free-living environment and in laboratory-based settings to investigate the effects of portion size on energy intake unanimously showed that as the portion size of food increased, so did subjects' energy intake. Despite the fact that the profound effects of portion size on energy intake are well documented, the mechanisms by which portion size affects energy intake are poorly understood. There is some evidence that sensory influences (e.g. visual and olfactory cues), cognitive factors (e.g. learning, social norms, monetary considerations), and post-ingestive consequences (e.g. sensations of hunger and fullness) related to the portion size of foods may interact to affect the amount of food that is consumed during a meal.

Energy Intake↗

PubMed2005

Relationship between taste thresholds and hunger under debate.

We determined taste recognition thresholds for six compounds (sucrose, fructose, sodium chloride, quinine sulphate, PROP and liquorice) in fasting students and, in the same subjects, after a meal. The testing procedure was the staircase-method in blind conditions. Although taste sensitivity may vary with hormonal status, our results did not show any significant difference in taste recognition thresholds between hunger and satiety. Our Bayesian analysis did not corroborate the hypothesis of increased sensitivity to nutrition-related tastants in the fasting state that was recently supported by data obtained with the two-alternative forced-choice method.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Effects of consuming mycoprotein, tofu or chicken upon subsequent eating behaviour, hunger and safety.

This study tested if: (1) a preload of mycoprotein and tofu consumed before a lunch meal have a greater effect on satiety when compared to a chicken preload, (2) the mycoprotein and tofu preloads, compared to chicken, are not associated with compensation or eating more food at a subsequent dinner meal. These hypotheses were tested in a controlled laboratory study using universal eating monitors to measure food intake and visual analogue scales to monitor hunger and satiety. Forty-two overweight adult females consumed three meals in the laboratory on 3 test days. At lunch, isocaloric pasta preloads, containing mycoprotein, tofu, or chicken, varied across the days in a balanced order. The findings of the study supported the two hypotheses. Mycoprotein and tofu preloads, in comparison to the chicken preload, were associated with lower food intake shortly after consuming the preload at lunch. Food intake following consumption of mycoprotein and tofu did not differ, and participants did not compensate for lower food intake at lunch by consuming more food at dinner. The findings suggest that mycoprotein and tofu have satiating properties that persist for several hours after a meal. These findings have significant implications for the development of foods that are low in kilojoules, but are also filling.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Effects of hunger state on flavour pleasantness conditioning at home: flavour-nutrient learning vs. flavour-flavour learning.

UNLABELLED: This study examined acquired liking of flavour preferences through flavour-flavour and flavour-nutrient learning under hungry or sated conditions in a naturalistic setting. Each participant consumed one of three versions of a test drink at home either before lunch or after lunch: minimally sweetened ( CONTROL: 3% sucrose, 40 kcal), artificially sweetened (3% sucrose 40 kcal plus artificial sweeteners ASPARTAME) and sucrose-sweetened (SUCROSE: 9.9% sugar, 132 kcal). The test drink was an uncarbonated peach-flavoured iced tea served in visually identical drink cans (330 ml). Participants preselected as "sweet likers" evaluated the minimally sweetened flavoured drink (conditioned stimulus, CS) in the same state (hungry or sated) in which they consumed the test drink at home. Overall, liking for the CS flavour increased in participants who consumed the SUCROSE drink, however, this increase in liking was significantly larger when tested and trained hungry than sated, consistent with a flavour-nutrient model. Overall increases in pleasantness for the CS flavour in participants who consumed the SUCROSE drink when sated or the ASPARTAME drink independent of hunger state, suggest that flavour-flavour learning also occurred. These results are discussed in light of current learning models of flavour preference.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Longitudinal study of the fundamental frequency of hunger cries along the first 6 months of healthy babies.

SUMMARY: Potentially rich in information, the baby's cry has motivated several researches along the years. Although most of these studies have generated important knowledge about the baby's cry, they were focused on the neonatal period. The few longitudinal studies on changes in the acoustical features of the cry over the baby's growth have been done with a small sample and a large recording interval. Aiming to overcome such methodological limitations, this work investigated hunger cries using a more representative sample size (30 babies) and time resolution (biweekly intervals) from birth to 6 months of baby's age. The findings indicate that the fundamental frequency (f0) of the cry signals did vary more than previously reported in the literature. The results showed a widespread oscillatory behavior in f0 evolution along all the 6 months with an especially significant decrease from birth to the 15th day of life. The present results are not clinically applicable yet, but they pointed some novel aspects of the f0 mean values along the baby's growth. These findings and further longitudinal studies can help standardize age-related cry parameters, which are essential for medical and language development researches.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1997

Elder insecurities: poverty, hunger, and malnutrition.

Between 8% and 16% (2.5 to 4.9 million) of the elder population have experienced food insecurity within a 6-month period. Federal programs to combat food insecurity reach only one-third of needy elders. While hunger and poverty are linked directly to malnutrition, the multifaceted nature of elderly malnutrition cuts across all economic, racial, and ethnic groups. Malnourished patients experience 2 to 20 times more complications, have up to 100% longer hospital stays, and compile hospital costs $2,000 to $10,000 higher per stay. Dietitians can advocate routine nutrition screening to target elders at highest risk and lobby for expansion of appropriate nutrition services in home, community, and institutional settings.

Aged↗

PubMed1999

Calcium hunger in the parathyroidectomized rat is specific.

Calcium ingestion consequent on a challenge to calcium homeostasis such as parathyroidectomy or calcium deficient diet often appears to be nonspecific: rats rendered calcium deficient by a calcium-deficient diet increase ingestion of many tastants besides calcium, including MgCl2 and in particular, NaCl. Rats rendered calcium deficient by parathyroidectomy (PTX) have also been reported to increase ingestion of magnesium. Thus, magnesium, a chemically related molecule, and NaCl, a preferred mineral, pose challenges to the notion of a specific calcium hunger in calcium-deficient rats. Here, we reexamine the specificity of calcium preference of rats rendered calcium hungry by PTX by allowing them to choose between CaCl2 and MgCl2, and between CaCl2 and NaCl. We find that PTX rats clearly prefer calcium to either tastant. A review of the literature on tastant selection by calcium-hungry rats suggests that, given the choice between calcium and other tastants, they prefer calcium. Our findings lend credence to the notion of a calcium specific appetite in calcium-deficient rats.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Evaluation of the Food and Agriculture Organization's global school-based nutrition education initiative, Feeding Minds, Fighting Hunger (FMFH), in schools of Hyderabad, India.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy of the Food and Agriculture Organization's global school-based nutrition education initiative, Feeding Minds, Fighting Hunger (FMFH), in improving nutrition-related knowledge levels of schoolchildren. DESIGN: Adopting the cluster randomisation technique, five schools each in experimental and control groups were randomly chosen from the member schools of a voluntary organisation. Repeated measures of knowledge levels were carried out at three points in time to assess pre-, post-intervention and retention of knowledge gained during the intervention. Children from experimental schools were given nutrition education by teachers in the classroom setting using FMFH material. SUBJECTS/SETTINGS: Schoolchildren (n=358 in the control group and n=312 in the experimental group) of grades VIII and IX from schools in Hyderabad, India. RESULTS: The classroom-based intervention resulted in a significant improvement (P<0.01) in nutrition knowledge levels of schoolchildren in the experimental group. Significant improvement in knowledge was also observed in the control group. The effect size indicated that the improvement in knowledge levels of schoolchildren in experimental schools over control schools was medium (d=0.40), indicating the efficacy of the FMFH programme in improving nutrition-related knowledge. No significant decrease (P>0.05) in knowledge levels was observed after 2 months, indicating retention of the knowledge acquired through the intervention. CONCLUSION: The FMFH programme provides an opportunity for schoolchildren to learn more about nutrition through their teachers in a classroom setting if the lesson plans are adapted to the local circumstances. Furthermore, it has the potential to make nutrition education interactive, effective and sustainable.

Agriculture↗

PubMed2002

Acute hunger of rat pups elicits increased kyphotic nursing and shorter intervals between nursing bouts: implications for changes in nursing with time postpartum.

Earlier findings, based on limited behavioral observations, indicate that nursing behavior in rats declines dramatically in duration over time postpartum-despite increasing ingestion of milk by rat pups to meet their growth and metabolic needs-although hungry pups elicit more nursing than do well-nourished pups. The authors compared the nursing pattern in detail for 6 hr on Days 7 and 14 and induced hunger in pups acutely with mammary-duct-ligated dams unable to provide milk. Compared with Day 7, on Day 14, supine nursing and the interval between nursing bouts increased, whereas hovering over pups and kyphotic nursing decreased. When pups were increasingly hungry, these age-related changes were counteracted. Thus, the ingestive motivation of pups largely regulates the nursing pattem over time.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2001

Hunger selectively modulates corticolimbic activation to food stimuli in humans.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to determine whether visual responses to food in the human amygdala and related corticolimbic structures would be selectively altered by changes in states of hunger. Participants viewed images of motivationally relevant (food) and motivationally irrelevant (tool) objects while undergoing fMRI in alternately hungry and satiated conditions. Food-related visual stimuli elicited greater responses in the amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus. and anterior fusiform gyrus when participants were in a hungry state relative to a satiated state. The state-dependent activation of these brain structures did not generalize to the motivationally irrelevant objects. These results support the hypothesis that the amygdala and associated inferotemporal regions are involved in the integration of subjective interoceptive states with relevant sensory cues processed along the ventral visual stream.

Adult↗

PubMed1975

Trigeminal deafferentation and hunger in the pigeon (Columbia livia).

The location and distribution of the pigeon's trigeminal nerve permit deafferentation of the oral region without affecting motor functions. Although trigeminal deafferentation does not affect drinking, it reduces the efficiency of the consummatory response of eating and disrupts motivational processes underlying hunger and weight regulation. Although the two types of deficit may be experimentally dissociated, trigeminal deafferentation invariably affects both sensorimotor and motivational mechanisms. The deficits in food intake and weight regulation seen after trigeminal deafferentation in the pigeon resemble some components of the "lateral hypothalamic syndrome" in the rat. The results are related to recent studies of the contribution of peripheral and central oropharyngeal factors to the neural control of food intake in both rat and pigeon.

Animals↗

PubMed1981

Disruption of appetite but not hunger or satiety following small lesions in the amygdala of rats.

Discretely localized lesions were made in the amygdala to examine how specifically they might alter various measures of feeding behavior in male rats. Behavioral tests included spontaneous intake and body weight regulation, reactivity to saccharin and quinine solutions, conditioned taste aversion, the feeding response to food deprivation, the response to glucose gavage, and teh response to dietary amino acid imbalance. Lesions in virtually all regions of the amygdala disrupted feeding behavior in some respect, but alterations in specific tasks were associated only with highly circumscribed brain damage. Body weight regulation, spontaneous food and water intake, and the responses to glucose gavage and long-term food deprivation were not altered by lesions in the amygdala. The results provide evidence that, in the rat, the amygdala may play a greater role in appetite than in hunger or safety. In particular, amygdaloid nuclei may participate in maintaining a negative bias in the reactivity to all appetitive stimuli.

Amygdala↗

PubMed2001

Hunger tolerance and Leishmania in sandflies.

The sandfly Phlebotomus papatasi transmits Leishmania major, the agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis, in desert and savannah regions of the Old World, where seasonal stress of dehydration and heat reduces the quantity of sugar in plant leaves. Without essential sugar, only a few flies that feed on leaves can survive for long enough to deposit eggs and transmit Leishmania. Accordingly, selection for hunger tolerance may also select for pathogen susceptibility in flies. Here we provide evidence of a link between these advantageous and costly properties by testing the susceptibility of flies selected by sugar deprivation and of flies from irrigated and arid habitats.

Adaptation, Physiological↗