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PubMedDate not supplied

Comparison of anesthetic and cardiorespiratory effects of diazepam-butorphanol-ketamine, acepromazine-butorphanol-ketamine, and xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine in ferrets.

Ten ferrets were used in a crossover study to determine the sedative effects of intramuscularly administered diazepam (3 mg/kg body weight)-butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg body weight)-ketamine (15 mg/kg body weight); acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg body weight)-butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg body weight)-ketamine (15 mg/kg body weight); and xylazine (2 mg/kg body weight)-butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg body weight)-ketamine (15 mg/kg body weight). All of the ferrets became laterally recumbent following the administration of each drug combination. The xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine combination induced significantly longer (p less than 0.05) durations of tail-clamp analgesia (mean+/-standard deviation [SD], 81.0+/-19.1 min versus 20.5+/-25.4 min and 30.0+/-26.9 min), dorsal recumbency (mean+/-SD, 94.6+/-13.6 min versus 75. 6+/-34.7 min and 55.2+24.8 min), and muscle relaxation suitable for endotracheal intubation (mean+/-SD, 67.1+/-23.0 min versus 7.0+/-22.1 min and 9.5+/-15.4 min) than the diazepam-butorphanol-ketamine and acepromazine-butorphanol-ketamine combinations, respectively. The recovery time from dorsal recumbency to standing was not significantly different among the three treatment groups. The heart rate was significantly lower in the xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine group; however, systolic blood pressure was not significantly different among the treatment groups. Ventilatory function was more depressed in the diazepam-butorphanol-ketamine and xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine groups than in the acepromazine-butorphanol-ketamine group. A period (approximately 45 minutes) of hypoxia was observed in the xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine-treated ferret. Of the three combinations evaluated in ferrets, xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine was concluded to be the most effective anesthetic combination. However, hypoxemia and ventricular arrhythmias were observed in the xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine-treated ferrets, so the effectiveness of the xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine combination should be weighed against its cardiorespiratory side effects.

Acepromazine↗
PubMed1992

Chronic toxicity studies of sertaconazole after oral administration to rats and ferrets.

Six-month chronic oral toxicity studies of 7-chloro-3-[1-(2, 4-dichlorophenyl)-2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)ethoxy-methyl] benzo[b]thiophene (sertaconazole, FI-7045, CAS 99592-32-2) were carried out in rats and ferrets. The dose levels used were 50, 150 and 300 mg/kg in rats and 50, 150 and 250 mg/kg in ferrets. There was no mortality associated with the drug in either of the two species. The results obtained show that the toxic effects may be summarized as a smaller body weight increase in rats at 150 and 300 mg/kg and in male ferrets at 250 mg/kg. Food consumption decreased significantly in rats at 300 mg/kg, and was not proportional to the doses of 150 and 50 mg/kg. In serum biochemistry, increases in alkaline phosphatase in rats, ALT in male ferrets at 150 and 250 mg/kg and AST only at 250 mg/kg were observed. BUN increased at 150 and 250 mg/kg in ferrets.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Immunologic comparisons of Pneumocystis carinii strains obtained from rats, ferrets, and mice using convalescent sera from the same sources.

Pneumocystis carinii (Pc) infections were developed in animals immunosuppressed by dexamethasone treatment either from activation of latent infection (ferret) or trans-tracheal inoculation of Pc obtained from infected lungs of the homologous species (rat, mouse). Convalescent antisera were obtained by stopping dexamethasone treatment after 2-4 wk and allowing 5-8 wk for recovery. Parasites from infected lungs were purified by differential filtration, solubilized in loading buffer, subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate- polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and blotted to polyvinylidene fluoride sheets for Western analysis. Antisera from each animal species were reacted on Western blots of antigens from rat, ferret, and mouse. Each combination of antigen and antibody from the same species of animal showed reaction with 5 or more bands of Pc antigen. Convalescent mouse antibody did not react with rat or ferret antigens. Convalescent rat antibody reacted with a mouse antigen at about 66 kDa but not with ferret antigen, and convalescent ferret antibody showed minimal, probably non-specific reactions with both rat and mouse antigens. Variations in reactions indicate antigenic differences in Pc strains infecting these animals.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Reproductive failure in mink and ferrets after intravenous or oral inoculation of Campylobacter jejuni.

Four pregnant mink and seven pregnant ferrets, including five with previous exposure and specific antibody, were injected intravenously with 10(8)-10(10) colony-forming units of Campylobacter jejuni. All 11 pregnancies failed 1-16 days after infection, with results ranging from fetal resorption to expulsion of dead or premature living kits. In every case, uterine contents (placenta, uterine fluid and/or kits) were culture-positive for C. jejuni. Three pregnant mink and nine pregnant ferrets, including four with previous exposure and antibody, were fed 10(9)-10(11) C. jejuni. Two of the mink aborted; kits of all three were culture-positive, but those of one female survived. Seven of the nine ferrets aborted, with two having culture-positive uterine contents. None of 28 uninfected ferret control pregnancies ended in abortion. The most prominent histological feature observed was severe placentitis, which appears to be a more likely cause of Campylobacter-induced abortion than direct pathogenic effects on infected kits. These results suggest that infection of mink or ferrets with C. jejuni during pregnancy poses a serious risk of reproductive failure, even for previously exposed females.

Abortion, Veterinary↗
PubMed1990

Lack of detectable blood groups in domestic ferrets: implications for transfusion.

Evidence of blood groups in domestic ferrets was sought by testing serum samples for naturally acquired or experimentally induced erythrocyte antibodies. All sera were tested for ability to cause direct agglutination, antiglobulin-enhanced (Coombs test) agglutination, or lysis. Examination of 212 randomly paired combinations of ferret serum and erythrocytes produced no evidence of naturally acquired blood group antibodies. Six pairs of ferrets were reciprocally transfused twice, 34 days apart, with 6-ml quantities of anticoagulated blood. All were tested 21 days after the first transfusion, as well as 10 and 30 days after the second transfusion; erythrocyte antibodies were not detected. Four additional pairs of ferrets were reciprocally inoculated SC with a series of six 1.25-ml quantities of blood in Alsever solution, administered over a 3-week period, and tested 8 days after the last injection; again, erythrocyte antibodies could not be detected. These observations suggest that blood groups of the kind in human beings and other mammals either do not exist in domestic ferrets or represent antigen systems too weak to elicit measurable responses under the reported conditions. It appears, therefore, that transfusion in this species poses little clinical risk, even without crossmatching.

Agglutination Tests↗
PubMed1990

Helicobacter pylori-like microorganisms and chronic active gastritis in ferrets.

To determine the prevalence and histology of Helicobacter pylori (HP) associated gastritis in young ferrets, we examined 36 normal 2- to 4-month old ferrets. Identification of HP-like microorganisms included Warthin Starry stains of tissue sections, rapid urease test on fresh tissue, and culture. HP-like microorganisms were found in the stomachs of 35/36 ferrets. The highest density of microorganisms was seen in the antrum, where HP-like microorganisms were present in the pits and in deep glands. HP-like microorganisms were also seen in the cardia and on the foveolar epithelium of the fundus, but not in fundic glands. Chronic active gastritis was seen in all animals with HP-like microorganisms, but involved only the antrum. The distal antrum was most severely involved. One animal had no evidence of HP-like microorganisms on tissue sections or by rapid urease test. Gastric tissue sections from this animal showed only minimal infiltration of the lamina propria by polymorphonuclear leukocytes and lymphocytes. Gastritis associated with HP-like microorganisms is common in ferrets and is acquired at a young age. It is associated with chronic active antral gastritis similar to that seen in humans, suggesting that ferrets should provide a useful experimental model for HP-associated gastritis and peptic ulcer.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Treatment of proliferative colitis in ferrets.

Proliferative colitis associated with intracellular Campylobacter sp was diagnosed in 10 ferrets. The ferrets had a history of diarrhea (often blood-tinged or mucoid), dehydration, and chronic weight loss. Additional clinical signs included rectal prolapse, lethargy, fever, and a palpably thick colon. In 5 ferrets, the diagnosis was confirmed by colonic biopsy, via endoscopy. Supportive treatment in 5 ferrets did not alleviate the clinical signs or the proliferative intestinal disorder. oral chloramphenicol treatment (50 mg/kg of body weight, q 12 h for 10 to 21 days) resulted in marked clinical improvement and eradication of proliferative intestinal lesions in 5 ferrets.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Fates of visual cortical neurons in the ferret after isochronic and heterochronic transplantation.

In the mammalian cerebral cortex, neurons in a given layer are generated at about the same time in development. These cells also tend to share similar sets of morphological and physiological properties and have projection patterns characteristic of that layer. This correspondence between the birthday and eventual fate of a cortical neuron suggests the possibility that the commitment of a cell to a particular laminar position and set of connections may occur very early on in cortical development. The experiments described here constitute an attempt to manipulate the fates of newly generated cortical neurons upon transplantation. The first set of experiments addressed the normal development of neurons in the primary visual cortex (area 17) of the ferret. Injections of 3H-thymidine into newborn ferrets showed that neurons generated after birth are destined to sit in layer 2/3 of the cortex, whereas neurons born on embryonic day (E) 32 populate primarily layers 5 and 6. Many layer 2/3 neurons in adult ferrets could be retrogradely labeled with HRP from visual cortical areas 18 and 19, while about half of the neurons in layer 6 were found to project to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). In the second set of experiments, presumptive layer 2/3 cells were labeled in vivo by injecting ferrets with 3H-thymidine on P1 and P2. Before the cells had a chance to migrate, they were removed from the donor brain, incubated in a fluorescent dye (DAPI or fast blue), and dissociated into a single-cell suspension. The labeled cells were then transplanted into the proliferative zone of a littermate host ferret ("isochronic" transplants). Over the next few weeks, many of these dye-labeled cells underwent changes in their position and morphology that were consistent with a radially directed migration and subsequent differentiation into cortical neurons. The final positions of isochronically transplanted neurons in the host brain were mapped out by using the 3H-thymidine marker after long survival periods. About 97% of radioactively labeled cells had migrated out into the visual cortex, where they attained a compact laminar distribution: 99% were found in layer 2/3, their normal destination. The labeled cells had normal, mostly pyramidal neuronal morphologies and appeared to be well integrated with host neurons when viewed in Nissl-stained sections. Ten isochronically transplanted neurons were successfully labeled after HRP injection into 2 normal target regions, areas 18 and 19.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Emesis, radiation exposure, and local cerebral blood flow in the ferret.

We examined the sensitivity of the ferret to emetic stimuli and the effect of radiation exposure near the time of emesis on local cerebral blood flow. Ferrets vomited following the administration of either apomorphine (approx 45% of the ferrets tested) or peptide YY (approx 36% of those tested). Exposure to radiation was a very potent emetic stimulus, but vomiting could be prevented by restraint of the hindquarters of the ferret. Local cerebral blood flow was measured using a quantitative autoradiographic technique and with the exception of several regions in the telencephalon and cerebellum, local cerebral blood flow in the ferret was similar to that in the rat. In animals with whole-body exposure to moderate levels of radiation (4 Gy of 137Cs), mean arterial blood pressure was similar to that in the control group. However, 15-25 min following irradiation there was a general reduction of local cerebral blood flow ranging from 7 to 33% of that in control animals. These cerebral blood flow changes likely correspond to a reduced activation of the central nervous system.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Campylobacter-like organisms isolated from gastric mucosa of ferrets.

Campylobacter-like organisms (CLO) were isolated from gastric lesions in 1 ferret and gastric mucosa of 2 healthy ferrets. The organism was not isolated from biopsies of gastric mucosa of 14 other healthy ferrets, 1 of which had small gastric lesions located at the pylorus. Lesions from which CLO were isolated were located in the antrum of 1 ferret and were classified as inflammation with repair. Affected gastric tissue was highly vascularized with fibrous connective tissue surrounding irregularly shaped glands. Necrosis and ulceration of adjacent mucosa also were observed. Using Warthin-Starry stain, Campylobacter-like organisms were seen on and in the glandular epithelium of the ferret with gastric lesions from which CLO were isolated.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed1985

Pulmonary physiology of the ferret and its potential as a model for inhalation toxicology.

Physiological measurements were made from anesthetized, tracheotomized, supine male ferrets. Six animals weighing 576 +/- 12 g, had tidal volumes (Vt) of 6.06 +/- 0.30 ml, respiratory frequencies (f) of 26.7 +/- 3.9 min(-1), dynamic lung compliance (CDYN) of 2.48 +/- 0.21 ml cmH2O(-1), pulmonary resistance (RL) of 22.56 +/- 1.61 cmH2O L(-1) sec. Pressure-volume curves from nine ferrets (including the above six) revealed almost infinitely compliant chest walls so that lung and total respiratory system curves were essentially the same. Total lung capacity (TLC) (89 +/- 5 ml) and functional residual capacity (FRC) (17.8 +/- 2.0 ml) were determined by gas freeing the lungs in vivo. The TLC of these ferrets was about the same as in 2.5 kg rabbits. Maximum expiratory flow-volume curves showed peak flows of 10.1 vital capacities (VC) sec(-1) at 75% VC and flows of 8.4 and 5.4 VC sec(-1) at 50% and 25% VC. No particular problems were encountered in making these measurements using conventional techniques available in laboratories capable of making pulmonary function measurements on rats and guinea pigs. Preliminary studies of airways reactivity showed equal increases in pulmonary resistance in response to equivalent challenges of aerosolized carbachol and histamine. Light and electron microscopic studies showed that the airways of ferrets are even more like those of humans than are the dog's. The ease with which physiological measurements can be made and the favorable aspects of the lung anatomy indicate the ferret may be more useful, as well as less expensive, than the dog for use in studies of pulmonary physiology and inhalation toxicology.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1981

Feed consumption and food passage time in mink (Mustela vison) and European ferrets (Mustela putorius furo).

The amount of feed consumed per day and the rate of food passage was measured in mink and European ferrets. Daily feed consumption averaged 40 and 42 g dry matter per kg body weight for male mink and ferrets and 53 and 49 g dry matter per kg body weight for female mink and ferrets, respectively. Using ferric oxide as a feed marker, no differences were observed in food passage time between mink and ferrets or between males and females within each species. The mean time of food passage was 187 minutes for mink and 182 minutes for European ferrets.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Altered sexual partner preference in male ferrets given excitotoxic lesions of the preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus.

Numerous experiments suggest that perinatal exposure of male vertebrates to testosterone (T), or its estrogenic metabolites, masculinizes aspects of coital function, including males' characteristic preference to seek out and mate with a female as opposed to another male conspecific. Other research has shown that this perinatal action of sex steroids also masculinizes aspects of neuronal morphology in the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus (mPOA/AH). We asked whether neurons of the mPOA/AH contribute to males' preference to mate with a female. The ferret is an ideal species in which to ask this question. When tested in a T-maze after gonadectomy and treatment with estradiol benzoate (EB), female ferrets prefer to approach and receive neck grips from a stimulus male whereas males prefer to approach and neck grip an estrous female. In the minority of trials when EB-treated males approach a stimulus male, they occasionally receive a neck grip to which they display receptive postures as opposed to agonistic behaviors. In Experiment 1 castrated, EB-treated male ferrets which received bilateral infusions of the NMDA excitotoxin, quinolinic acid aimed at the dorsomedial POA/AH, preferred to approach a stimulus male significantly more often than groups of control males which either received a sham lesion, received a unilateral mPOA/AH lesion or in which bilateral infusions of quinolinic aci produced no histologically detectible excitotoxic damage to the mPOA/AH. Males with bilateral mPOA/AH lesions also displayed neck gripping on a significantly lower percentage of trials than control males when they approached the stimulus female. Ovariectomized, EB-treated female ferrets with bilateral mPOA/AH lesions, like control females, preferred to approach and receive neck grips from a stimulus male. The males used in Experiment 1 had never experienced circulating levels of T characteristic of the breeding season. Therefore, in Experiment 2 prepubertally gonadectomized males and females were treated chronically with a high dose of T propionate (TP) and tested several times with a receptive female prior to brain surgery. Males which received bilateral excitotoxic lesions of the mPOA/AH neck gripped and mounted stimulus females significantly less than control males. Again, when given EB followed by T-maze tests of partner preference, males with bilateral mPOA/AH lesions, like sham-operated female controls, preferred to approach the sexually active stimulus male significantly more often than control males, which preferred to approach the stimulus female. Our results suggest that neurons in the mPOA/AH play an important role in the integration of sensory cues which determine heterosexual partner preference in the male ferret, in addition to facilitating masculine coital performance.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Granulomatous enteritis caused by Mycobacterium avium in a ferret.

Granulomatous enteritis caused by Mycobacterium avium was diagnosed in a pet ferret evaluated for anorexia, vomiting, and diarrhea. Delayed gastric emptying was identified during barium sulfate contrast radiography. A constriction in the duodenum, which was an area of granulomatous inflammation on histologic examination, was surgically removed. After removal of this lesion, the ferret did well for 8 months, but clinical signs returned. At a second surgery, a nodule was removed from the pylorus. The ferret died 2 weeks later. At necropsy, granulomatous inflammation, with acid-fast organisms, was found in the pylorus, small intestine, mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, and spleen. Mycobacterium avium was isolated from specimens of liver and spleen. Ferrets can develop clinical disease caused by M avium, and infected ferrets may pose public health threats.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Developmental changes produced in the retinofugal pathways of rats and ferrets by early monocular enucleations: the effects of age and the differences between normal and albino animals.

Early monocular enucleations were done in rats, either at embryonic day 16 (E16) or on the day of birth, and the surviving uncrossed pathway was studied either at birth for some of the animals enucleated prenatally, or in the adult for all of the other animals. The uncrossed pathways were studied by using HRP as a retrograde tracer. The neonatal enucleations showed the increase of the surviving uncrossed component previously documented by others. In contrast to this, a prenatal enucleation produced a significant reduction in the surviving uncrossed pathway at birth. If these animals survived to be adults, then the surviving uncrossed pathway was slightly increased relative to normal. We conclude that two quite distinct mechanisms have been exposed by these experiments, one acting prenatally and producing a reduction in the uncrossed pathway, and the other acting postnatally and producing an increase. The postnatal effect, which is due to a decrease of the normally occurring ganglion cell death, thus neutralizes the prenatal effect, so that the most effective demonstration of the prenatal effect is to be seen before the period of cell death (early postnatal in rats and ferrets). The same methods were applied to prenatal ferrets at E26-E28 and, in order to see the maximum prenatal effects, the uncrossed pathways were studied at birth in all of these animals. There was a severe reduction of the uncrossed pathway throughout, and this was greatest in the animals with the earliest enucleations. Since the uncrossed pathway in normally reared albino animals is abnormally small, the effects of an early prenatal enucleation in albino rats and ferrets were compared with the effects in normally pigmented animals in order to determine whether the early enucleation was producing an abnormality comparable to the albino abnormality. Prenatal enucleations reduced the uncrossed pathway not only in normally pigmented but also in albino neonatal rats and ferrets. Further, the characteristic position of the nasal border of the temporal retina, which is abnormal in albino animals, was unaffected by the enucleation in either the albino or the pigmented animals, except where, in ferrets, enucleations produced a complete loss of the temporal concentration of ipsilaterally projecting ganglion cells (the temporal crescent). The earlier enucleations showed a greater tendency to produce such a complete loss of the temporal crescent. We conclude that the developmental mechanisms affected by the early enucleations are distinct from those that act to produce the albino abnormality even though both produce an abnormally small uncrossed pathway.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Albinism↗
PubMed1996

Surface properties of Helicobacter mustelae and ferret gastrointestinal mucosa.

Helicobacter mustelae is a gastric pathogen in ferrets that adheres to epithelial cells both in vitro and in vivo. In this study, the authors examine the role of surface hydrophobic properties in the adhesion of these organisms to eukaryotic cell surfaces. The surface properties of six H. mustelae strains were characterized by hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC), salt aggregation testing (SAT) and contact-angle measurement by axisymmetric drop-shape analysis (ADSA). Contact angles in multiple regions of the gastrointestinal tract, obtained from infected and uninfected ferrets, were also measured. The cell surface of H. mustelae was found to be hydrophilic by SAT but relatively hydrophobic by HIC. Contact-angle measurements for H.mustelae (mean 22.5 degrees, 95% confidence interval [CI] 9.3 degrees to 35.7 degrees) were higher than values previously reported for Helicobacter pylori (mean 12.1 degrees, 95% CI 2.0 degrees to 22.2 degrees, p < 0.05). The body of the stomach was more hydrophilic in infected ferrets (mean contact angle 59.9 degrees, 95% CI 52.5 degrees to 67.3 degrees) than in uninfected animals (mean contact angle 94.2 degrees, 95% CI 84.4 degrees to 104.0 degrees, p < 0.05). Reductions in the surface hydrophobicity of the ferrets' stomachs were correlated with the degree of mucosal inflammation (p < 0.01). These findings demonstrate that H. mustelae has surface properties comparable to those of H. pylori strains. Like the human stomach infected by H. pylori, there is a reduction in surface hydrophobicity of the ferret antrum associated with H. mustelae infection and the resulting mucosal inflammatory cell response.

Ammonium Sulfate↗
PubMed1996

Relevance of the ferret model of Helicobacter-induced gastritis to evaluation of antibacterial therapies.

OBJECTIVES: The goals of the study were 1) to evaluate the efficacy of clinically relevant antibacterial therapies in the ferret model of Helicobacter-induced gastritis and 2) to compare these results to the efficacy achieved clinically in humans. METHODS: Ferrets were inoculated with H. mustelae, and gastritis was allowed to develop. The double therapy of clarithromycin and omeprazole and the triple therapies of clarithromycin or amoxicillin with metronidazole and omeprazole were administered. Efficacy was evaluated by Helicobacter burden cultured from biopsy samples and by histopathological evaluation of Helicobacter burden and gastric inflammation with pylorus and fundus samples obtained 4 wk after the end of antibacterial therapy. RESULTS: Clarithromycin-based double and triple therapies significantly reduced Helicobacter burden and decreased gastric inflammation. Clarithromycin-based double therapy was more effective than amoxicillin-based triple therapy. Reduction of the length of clarithromycin therapy from 14 to 7 days decreased efficacy. Antibacterial therapies in the ferret did not produce eradication rates comparable to clinical results, even though the serum concentrations of clarithromycin in ferret were in excess of concentrations used in humans. Relapse of Helicobacter infection after the end of therapy occurred in some cases. CONCLUSIONS: Although the ferret model of Helicobacter gastric infection underestimated the clinical efficacy of antibacterial treatments in humans, the model was valuable for comparing the relative efficacy of antibacterial therapies.

Amoxicillin↗
PubMed1997

Evaluation of noninvasive monitoring techniques in domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate instrument placement and accuracy of indirect physiologic monitoring techniques in anesthetized domestic ferrets. ANIMALS: 10 healthy adult female ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). PROCEDURE: Direct arterial blood pressure measurement and arterial blood sample collection were performed in ferrets. A pulse oximeter probe was clipped to a forefoot or hind foot; an airway adaptor for capnography was attached to the endotracheal tube; and a sphygmomanometer cuff and Doppler flow probe were positioned on the tail. Isoflurane and nitrous oxide concentrations were varied to induce episodes of hypotension or hypoxia, respectively. Aforementioned noninvasive techniques were compared with direct methods of arterial blood gas analysis, hemoximetry, and arterial blood pressure measurement. Simultaneously obtained direct and indirect measurements were statistically evaluated for mean and SD of the differences, and SEM, and subjectively, for ease of use and relevance to the clinical situation. RESULTS: Values obtained from pulse oximetry were closely related to oxygen saturation measured by blood gas analysis (O2sat). The mean (+/- SD) difference for all results was -0.49 (+/- -4.09)%. The most precise measurements were obtained when O2sat was between 90 and 100%. Capnography measurements varied between ranges. The most accurate measurements were obtained when PaCO2 was < 25 mm of Hg, when the mean difference was 1.6 (+/- -3.01) mm of Hg. Indirect blood pressure measurement consistently underestimated the direct blood pressure value. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Pulse oximetry is a convenient and accurate method for monitoring oxygen saturation in domestic ferrets. Capnography is useful for monitoring respiratory rate and pattern, but may present difficulties in interpretation of actual PaCO2. Indirect blood pressure monitoring is not accurate by use of current methods in ferrets.

Anesthetics, Inhalation↗