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PubMed2004

Recollective experience in odor recognition: influences of adult age and familiarity.

We examined recollective experience in odor memory as a function of age, intention to learn, and familiarity. Young and older adults studied a set of familiar and unfamiliar odors with incidental or intentional encoding instructions. At recognition, participants indicated whether their response was based on explicit recollection (remembering), a feeling of familiarity (knowing), or guessing. The results indicated no age-related differences in the distribution of experiential responses for unfamiliar odors. By contrast, for familiar odors the young demonstrated more explicit recollection than the older adults, who produced more "know" and "guess" responses. Intention to learn was unrelated to recollective experience. In addition, the observed age differences in "remember" responses for familiar odors were eliminated when odor naming was statistically controlled. This suggests that age-related deficits in activating specific odor knowledge (i.e., odor names) play an important role for age differences in recollective experience of olfactory information.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Levels-of-processing effects on Chinese character completion: the importance of lexical processing and test cue.

The levels of processing (LoP) effect was studied in Chinese character completion tasks. The same stem cue, either graphemically or semantically related to the target character, was used to generate either a perceptual or a conceptual test. Participants received either direct or indirect instructions, so that the same stem cue also produced either an explicit or an implicit test of memory. This allowed us to examine simultaneously the roles of perceptual versus conceptual test and retrieval intentionality in the LoP effect. No LoP effects were found when the memory test was implicit. LoP effects were also not found for stems and characters related graphemically (perceptually), but were found for stems and characters related semantically (conceptually) when the memory test was explicit. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of lexical processing for character completion tests and the importance of reinstatement of the study process during retrieval for explicit memory tests.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Clarifying the concept of critical thinking in nursing.

Nursing must chart a course between the pedagogical extremes of process versus content-focused courses. No one would deny the fact that nurses must have a solid knowledge base in addition to demonstrating an ability to think critically. Reason favors a "both-and" rather than an "either-or" approach to this issue. Justifiably, nurses have jumped on the bandwagon of critical thinking. Once on the bandwagon, however, the elusive butterfly of critical thinking has been difficult to net. It is time to inform the driver that a new course for nursing must be charted. So far, the reported nursing research has focused on critical thinking conceptualized as a score on a broad, objective test. The important first step of establishing a clear concept that defines critical thinking in nursing has not been accomplished. Finding out what the expert nurse does with knowledge will help us to articulate a conception of critical thinking that can then be used as a springboard for various teaching strategies. If educators are persuaded that "students can and should think their way through the content of their courses, can and should gain some grasp of the logic of what they study, can and should develop explicit intellectual standards, then they can find many ways to move instruction in this direction" (Barnes, 1992, p. 22).

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1993

The effect of formal instruction in ophthalmoscopy on medical student performance.

Ophthalmoscopy is an essential part of a complete clinical examination of a patient. However specific formal instruction in fundoscopy is rarely given to medical students. We decided to determine the value of explicit teaching of ophthalmoscopy and devised and validated a rating scale for assessing performance which was used to evaluate 29 first year clinical medical student volunteers at St. Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College, before and after formal instruction in fundoscopy. The competence of this group at ophthalmoscopy was then compared to the rest of their year (109 medical students) during the objective structured clinical end-of-year examination. Students formally instructed in ophthalmoscopy showed an improved score after instruction (from 53% to 77%). They also performed better at fundoscopy than the rest of their year (mean average score 64%), when tested 2 months later, suggesting persistence of the training effect. However as a group they performed no better than their peers at clinical skills other than ophthalmoscopy. We suggest that as fundoscopy is such an important clinical skill, medical students should be given specific teaching, preferably in their ophthalmology firm attachment, as we have shown that it results in a persistent improvement in performance.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed2001

Probing memory with conceptual cues at multiple retention intervals: a comparison of forgetting rates on implicit and explicit tests.

The time courses for implicit and explicit conceptual tests of memory were compared in two experiments. In Experiment 1, participants encoded target words by judging the apparent pleasantness of their meaning. Immediately thereafter or 48 h later, retrieval cues were presented to different groups of participants for either an implicit or an explicit free-association task. Whereas explicit test performance showed a decline over the 48-h delay, implicit test performance was statistically unaltered. In Experiment 2, memory was tested at five retention intervals, lasting up to 3 weeks. The forgetting functions of both implicit and explicit tests conformed to a logarithmic function. Despite the large conceptual priming effect, which resulted from relational encoding instructions, implicit memory performance still declined at a much slower rate than did performance on the cued-recall test. We argue that because nominal conceptual cues were held constant across the implicit and the explicit conditions, the observed dissociation in performance supports a memory systems approach.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Normalization of affine gap costs used in optimal sequence alignment.

It is shown how to normalize the costs of an alignment algorithm that employs affine or linear gap costs. The normalized costs are interpreted as the -log probabilities of the instructions of a finite-state edit-machine. This gives an explicit model relating sequences that can be linked to processes of mutation and evolution.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Human nicotine conditioning requires explicit contingency knowledge: is addictive behaviour cognitively mediated?

RATIONALE: Two seemingly contrary theories describe the learning mechanisms that mediate human addictive behaviour. According to the classical incentive theories of addiction, addictive behaviour is motivated by a Pavlovian conditioned appetitive emotional response elicited by drug-paired stimuli. Expectancy theory, on the other hand, argues that addictive behaviour is mediated by an expectancy of the drug imparted by cognitive knowledge of the Pavlovian (predictive) contingency between stimuli (S+) and the drug and of the instrumental (causal) contingency between instrumental behaviour and the drug. AIMS AND METHOD: The present paper reviewed human-nicotine-conditioning studies to assess the role of appetitive emotional conditioning and explicit contingency knowledge in mediating addictive behaviour. RESULTS: The studies reviewed here provided evidence for both the emotional conditioning and the expectancy accounts. The first source of evidence is that nicotine-paired S+ elicit an appetitive emotional conditioned response (CR), albeit only in participants who expect nicotine. Furthermore, the magnitude of this emotional state is modulated by nicotine deprivation/satiation. However, the causal status of the emotional response in driving other forms of conditioned behaviour remains undemonstrated. The second source of evidence is that other nicotine CRs, including physiological responses, self-administration, attentional bias and subjective craving, are also dependent on participants possessing explicit knowledge of the Pavlovian contingencies arranged in the experiment. In addition, several of the nicotine CRs can be brought about or modified by instructed contingency knowledge, demonstrating the causal status of this knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these data suggest that human nicotine conditioned effects are mediated by an explicit expectancy of the drug coupled with an appetitive emotional response that reflects the positive biological value of the drug. The implication of this conclusion is that treatments designed to modify the expected value of the drug may prove effective.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Imagery and smoking urges: the manipulation of affective content.

This study investigated the impact of the affective content of imagery scripts used in an imagery paradigm designed to elicit smoking urges in a laboratory setting. Sixty cigarette smokers were instructed to vividly imagine 10 imagery scripts that described negative affect and explicit smoking urges, positive affect and explicit smoking urges, negative affect alone, positive affect alone, and neutral affect alone. Subjects' ratings of the vividness of their images across the five script types did not differ but ratings of urges and cravings indicated that scripts containing descriptions of smoking urges elicited strong reports of smoking urges/cravings comparable in magnitude across positive and negative affective content. Among scripts that did not explicitly describe smoking urges, negative affect scripts were more effective in generating smoking urges/craving than positive affect scripts, although positive affect scripts did produce significantly stronger urges/cravings than neutral affect scripts. An analysis of subjects' reports of the distribution of their strongest urges over imagery trials and regression analyses of the variables predictive of urge/craving report provided converging evidence that the content of the imagery scripts exerted considerable control over the generation of smoking urges in the imagery paradigm. The results indicated that the magnitude of urges and cravings produced by the imagery manipulation were clearly influenced by urge and affective content of the imagery scripts.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

External quality assessment of general practice laboratories: organizational issues and interpretation of feedback reports.

OBJECTIVE: To describe and evaluate organizational issues and handling of feedback reports in the Norwegian external quality assessment scheme (EQAS) for general practice laboratories. METHODS: Postal questionnaire survey including three EQAS feedback reports (one with acceptable analytical quality, one indicating a problem with precision and one indicating bias of the measurement method) to 535 randomly selected general practices. RESULTS: The response rate was 80%. Two-thirds of practices were group practices, and 16% of practices employed a medical technologist. Nearly all practices found the manual for analysing quality control material easy to understand, and samples seemed to be handled as part of routine laboratory work. Feedback reports were primarily studied by those responsible for laboratory work in the practice, and only in 60% of practices by doctors. Practice routines for follow-up of deviant results in the EQAS seemed to have been established. Internal quality control was performed in 90% of group practices and in 71% of solo practices. Concerning responses to feedback reports, there seemed to be a substantial need for assistance even for less deviant results, although most actions suggested by the practices were adequate. On the other hand, assistance was not always sought for "critical" problems. CONCLUSIONS: EQAS is feasible in primary care, but instructions must be clear and conclusions in the feedback reports made very explicit. Easy-to-reach assistance from medical technologists with expertise in general practice laboratory instruments and routines seems paramount.

Family Practice↗
PubMed2002

Curvature in hand movements as a result of visual misjudgements of direction.

The path that our hand takes when moving from one position to another is often slightly curved. Part of this curvature is caused by perceptual errors. We examine here whether this is so for the influence that a surface's orientation has on the approaching hand's path. When moving our hand towards a point on a surface we tend to follow a path that makes the final approach more orthogonal to the surface at that point. Doing so makes us less sensitive to imperfections in controlling our movements. Here we show that this tendency is also present when moving towards a point along an edge of a drawing of an oriented bar. The influence of the bar's orientation is no smaller when people are explicitly asked to move as straight as possible, than when they are instructed to move as fast as possible. The bar's orientation also influences perceptual judgements of a straight path, but this influence is only as large as it is on the curvature of the hand's path for judgements of the direction from the hand's initial position to the target. We conclude that the influence of the bar's orientation on the curvature of the hand's path is caused by a misperception of the initial direction in which the hand has to move to reach the target.

Hand↗
PubMed2003

Comparison of implicit and explicit learning processes in a probabilistic task.

This experiment compared the performance with explicit (rule-application and rule-discovery) and implicit (nonrule-instructed) learning approaches on the performance of a probabilistic video game task requiring fine motor control. The task required visual tracking of a small ball of light and "catching" it by means of joystick manipulation. A general pattern of improvement with practice occurred for all conditions. All conditions showed use of predictive relations among stimulus events. However, task performance of the rule-application and rule-discovery conditions were inferior to the nonrule-instructed implicit condition, particularly during the early phases of rule acquisition and application. This pattern strongly suggests substantial performance costs associated with attempting to discover or apply probabilistic rules. Decrements are likely due to increased cognitive demands associated with attempting to remember and strategically apply provided probability rules or attempting to discover and apply potentially important and useful probability information from a complex visual display.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Improving question formulation for use in evidence appraisal in a tertiary care setting: a randomised controlled trial [ISRCTN66375463].

BACKGROUND: The specificity of clinical questions is gauged by explicit descriptions of four dimensions: subjects, interventions, comparators and outcomes of interest. This study determined whether adding simple instructions and examples on clinical question formulation would increase the specificity of the submitted question compared to using a standard form without instructions and examples. METHODS: A randomised controlled trial was conducted in an evidence-search and appraisal service. New participants were invited to reformulate clinical queries. The Control Group was given no instructions. The Intervention Group was given a brief explanation of proper formulation, written instructions, and diagrammatic examples. The primary outcome was the change in the proportion of reformulated questions that described each the dimensions of specificity. RESULTS: Fifty-two subjects agreed to participate in the trial of which 13 were lost to follow-up. The remaining 17 Intervention Group and 22 Control Group participants were analysed. Baseline characteristics were comparable. Overall, 20% of initially submitted questions from both groups were properly specified (defined as an explicit statement describing all dimensions of specificity). On follow-up, 7/14 questions previously rated as mis-specified in the Intervention Group had all dimensions described at follow-up (p = 0.008) while the Control Group did not show any changes from baseline. Participants in the Intervention Group were also more likely to explicitly describe patients (p = 0.028), comparisons (p = 0.014), and outcomes (p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: This trial demonstrated the positive impact of specific instructions on the proportion of properly-specified clinical queries. The evaluation of the long-term impact of such changes is an area of continued research.

Allied Health Personnel↗
PubMed1991

The production of smoking urges through an imagery manipulation: psychophysiological and verbal manifestations.

This study examined physiological (heart rate, skin conductance, and finger temperature) responses and self-reported urges elicited by an imagery procedure designed to produce smoking urges. Sixty-six cigarette smokers were instructed to imagine vividly four audiotaped imagery scripts; two of the scripts contained explicit descriptions of smoking urge situations (urge scripts) while the other two were devoid of explicit urge content (neutral scripts). Physiological responses were monitored throughout each imagery trial and subjects rated the vividness of their image and intensity of their urge to smoke at the termination of each trial. Subjects reported significantly stronger urges to urge scripts than to neutral scripts. Urge scripts also produced increases in heart rate and higher tonic skin conductance levels than neutral scripts. These results suggest that the imagery procedure may have considerable potential in the study of the structure and function of drug urges. The theoretical implications of the data are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Savings in relearning: II. On the formation of behavior-based trait associations and inferences.

Five experiments based on Carlston and Skowronski's (1994) relearning paradigm suggest that people spontaneously derive trait knowledge about actors from behaviors but that this knowledge may reflect either explicit trait inference processes or implicit actor-trait associations. Experiments 1 and 2 found that inference-instructed and control Ss showed equivalent savings in subsequent efforts to learn actor-trait pairs but not when instructed Ss initially inferred the wrong trait. Experiment 3 showed that savings were equivalent for stimuli from different sources, and Experiment 4 showed that savings effects persisted even when the target was only incidentally associated with a stimulus behavior. Finally, Experiment 5 suggests that after several days, even explicit trait inferences can become inaccessible to intentional retrieval, although the earlier experiments show that they continue to exert an implicit effect on learning.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Age effects in cued recall: sources from implicit and explicit memory.

In 2 experiments, young and old adults were compared on cued recall using direct and indirect test instructions. Participants studied words under an incidental orienting task of rating each word for concreteness. Test cues were meaningfully related to the targets, and participants used them either to recall the studied word (direct test) or to generate a related word (indirect test). Target words and test cues varied in the number of associates linked to them prior to the laboratory experience, and effects of the size of the sets of associates were used as indicators of implicit memory search. Age differences were observed in the effects of target and cue set size as well as in the effects of type of test instruction.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

Affective and physiological sexual response patterns: the effects of instructions on sexually functional and dysfunctional men.

To more clearly characterize the patterns of cognitive-affective and physiological responses concomitant with male sexual dysfunction, the present study compared 14 sexually dysfunctional and 16 sexually functional men. All individuals listened to two sexually explicit tapes and engaged in a self-generated fantasy, while genital, heart rate and scaled cognitive affective responses were recorded. Two types of instructions, a performance demand set and a non-demand sensate focus set, preceded the erotic tapes in counterbalanced order. As predicted, dysfunctional men showed less genital tumescence to tapes preceded by the demand than the non-demand instructions. Contrary to expectation, functional men showed greater penile tumescence to the tapes preceded by demand instructions. Self-reported sexual arousal did not follow the penile tumescence pattern but instead indicated that the dysfunctional sample was significantly less subjectively aroused to the tapes and fantasy. There were other significant differences between the groups. Dysfunctional men showed greater general psychological distress, as measured by the SCL-90, including elevated somaticism, anxiety and depression scores. During the experimental session, dysfunctional men also evidenced greater awareness of a variety of physiological responses, as well as more negative and fewer positive cognitive-affective states. These data are discussed in terms of the interaction of affective and physiological responses, differences in contextual meanings of instructional sets given the presence of a dysfunction, and theoretical and clinical conceptualizations of male sexual functioning.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Learning from implicit learning literature: comment on Shea, Wulf, Whitacre, and Park (2001).

In their analysis of complex motor skill learning, Shea, Wulf, Whitacre, and Park (2001) have overlooked one of the most robust conclusions of the experimental studies on implicit learning conducted during the last decade--namely that participants usually learn things that are different from those that the experimenter expected them to learn. We show that the available literature on implicit learning strongly suggests that the improved performance in Shea et al.'s Experiments 1 and 2 (and similar earlier experiments, e.g., Wulf & Schmidt, 1997) was due to the exploitation of regularities in the target pattern different from those on which the postexperimental interview focused. This rules out the conclusions drawn from the failure of this interview to reveal any explicit knowledge about the task structure on the part of the participants. Similarly, because the information about the task structure provided to an instructed group of participants in Shea et al.'s Experiment 2 did not concern the regularities presumably exploited by the standard, so-called implicit, group, Shea et al.'s claim that explicit knowledge may be less effective than implicit knowledge is misleading.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

The effect of learning condition on perceptual anticipation, awareness, and visual search.

The efficacy of explicit and implicit learning paradigms was examined during the very early stages of learning the perceptual-motor anticipation task of predicting ball direction from temporally occluded footage of soccer penalty kicks. In addition, the effect of instructional condition on point-of-gaze during learning was examined. A significant improvement in horizontal prediction accuracy was observed in the explicit learning group; however, similar improvement was evident in a placebo group who watched footage of soccer matches. Only the explicit learning intervention resulted in changes in eye movement behaviour and increased awareness of relevant postural cues. Results are discussed in terms of methodological and practical issues regarding the employment of implicit perceptual training interventions.

Adult↗