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PubMed2006

Theories and measures of consciousness: an extended framework.

A recent theoretical emphasis on complex interactions within neural systems underlying consciousness has been accompanied by proposals for the quantitative characterization of these interactions. In this article, we distinguish key aspects of consciousness that are amenable to quantitative measurement from those that are not. We carry out a formal analysis of the strengths and limitations of three quantitative measures of dynamical complexity in the neural systems underlying consciousness: neural complexity, information integration, and causal density. We find that no single measure fully captures the multidimensional complexity of these systems, and all of these measures have practical limitations. Our analysis suggests guidelines for the specification of alternative measures which, in combination, may improve the quantitative characterization of conscious neural systems. Given that some aspects of consciousness are likely to resist quantification altogether, we conclude that a satisfactory theory is likely to be one that combines both qualitative and quantitative elements.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Person and consciousness.

My interlocuter is Locke with his reduction of person to personal consciousness. This reduction is a main reason preventing people from acknowledging the personhood of the earliest human embryo, which lacks all personal consciousness. I show that Catholic Christians who live the sacramental life of the Church have reason to think that they are, as persons, vastly more than what they experience themselves to be, for they believe that the sacraments work effects in them as persons that can only be believed but that cannot be experienced within themselves in this life. I also show that Christians and non-Christians alike have an experience of moral good and evil in themselves that implies that they are, as moral persons, far more than they find in their conscious self-presence. It is, therefore, natural to think that if my being a person so far exceeds my consciousness, I may well have once existed as person even before the awakening of consciousness.

Beginning of Human Life↗

PubMed2003

Hypnosis phenomenology and the neurobiology of consciousness.

Recent developments in the philosophical and neurobiological studies of consciousness provide promising frameworks to investigate the neurobiology of hypnosis. A model of consciousness phenomenology is described to demonstrate that the experiential dimensions characterizing hypnosis (relaxation and mental ease, absorption, orientation and monitoring, and self-agency) reflect basic phenomenal properties of consciousness. Changes in relaxation-mental ease and absorption, produced by standard hypnotic procedures, are further associated with changes in brain activity within structures critically involved in the basic representation of the body-self and the regulation of states of consciousness. The combination of experiential and modern brain imaging methods offers a unique perspective on hypnotic phenomena and provides new observations consistent with the proposition that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness.

Brain↗

PubMed2002

The relationships among Black consciousness, self-esteem, and academic self-efficacy in African American men.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among Black consciousness, self-esteem, and academic self-efficacy in African American men. The participants were 120 African American male college students at a predominantly African American university. The authors administered 3 instruments--the Developmental Inventory of Black Consciousness (DIB-C; J. Milliones, 1980), the M. Rosenberg (1965) Self-Esteem Scale, and R. E. Wood and E. A. Locke's (1987) Academic Self-Efficacy Scale--to test the hypotheses. They used an independent-measures t test and a Pearson r correlation to analyze the data. The results of the study supported the hypotheses under investigation. Significant positive relationships were found between Black consciousness and self-esteem and Black consciousness and academic self-efficacy. The results of the study showed that Black consciousness appears to be an important construct to use in understanding self-esteem and academic self-efficacy in African American men.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Conscious and unconscious influences of memory: temporal dynamics.

Changes in the conscious and unconscious influences of memory over time were assessed in two experiments by using a variant of the process-dissociation procedure. In both experiments, performance on a stem-completion task was measured under both inclusion and exclusion instructions. Across the two experiments, there were four different retention intervals: 2 minutes, 2 days, 2 weeks, and 2 months. The results indicated that conscious influences decreased systematically across retention interval. In contrast, unconscious influences of memory in the absence of conscious influences increased between 2 minutes and 2 days, and then remained relatively stable from 2 days to 2 weeks to 2 months. These results stand in apparent contrast to those of McBride and Dosher (1999), which showed equal rates of forgetting for conscious and unconscious influences of memory on performance. The implications for models of the relation between conscious and unconscious influences of memory on performance are discussed.

Consciousness↗

PubMed1994

Involuntary conscious memory and the method of opposition.

Priming in an indirect test of stem completion should reflect involuntary memory, but can be accompanied by conscious awareness of the past (involuntary conscious memory) or unaccompanied by such awareness (involuntary unconscious memory). We adapted the method of opposition developed by Jacoby, Woloshyn, and Kelley (1989) to obtain a measure of stem-completion priming that should reflect only involuntary unconscious memory. Subjects completed stems with the first word coming to mind, but wrote down a different word if the word that came to mind first had been previously encountered. Facilitatory priming was expected only when involuntary unconscious influences outweighed inhibitory effects of involuntary conscious memory, or of intentional retrieval. We observed a facilitation effect for items processed graphemically at encoding, in conjunction with an inhibition effect for items processed semantically at encoding. In contrast, a standard indirect test showed similar levels of priming following graphemic and semantic encoding, whereas a direct test showed a strong advantage of semantic over graphemic encoding. We argue that the two encoding activities produced approximately equivalent involuntary influences of memory, but that items encoded semantically were associated with involuntary conscious memory to a greater extent than were items encoded graphemically. Comparing indirect and opposition test performance can provide a quantitative index of relative levels of involuntary conscious and involuntary unconscious memory.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1998

Analysis of the EEG bispectrum, auditory evoked potentials and the EEG power spectrum during repeated transitions from consciousness to unconsciousness.

We have compared the auditory evoked potential (AEP) index (a numerical index derived from the AEP), 95% spectral edge frequency (SEF), median frequency (MF) and the bispectral index (BIS) during alternating periods of consciousness and unconsciousness produced by target-controlled infusions of propofol. We studied 12 patients undergoing hip or knee replacement under spinal anaesthesia. During periods of consciousness and unconsciousness, respective mean values for the four measurements were: AEP index, 60.8 (SD 13.7) and 37.6 (6.5); BIS, 85.1 (8.2) and 66.8 (10.5); SEF, 24.2 (2.2) and 18.7 (2.1); and MF, 10.9 (3.3) and 8.8 (2.0). Threshold values with a specificity of 100% for a state of unconsciousness were: AEP index, 37 (sensitivity 52%); BIS, 55 (sensitivity 15%); and SEF, 16.0 (sensitivity 9%). There was no recorded value for MF that was 100% specific for unconsciousness. Of the four measurements, only AEP index demonstrated a significant difference (P < 0.05) between all mean values 1 min before recovery of consciousness and all mean values 1 min after recovery of consciousness. Our findings suggest that of the four electrophysiological variables, AEP index was best at distinguishing the transition from unconsciousness to consciousness.

Aged↗

PubMed1990

Increased sensitivity to isoprenaline following digoxin pretreatment in anaesthetised and conscious dogs.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of chronic digoxin therapy on cardiac sensitivity to isoprenaline. DESIGN: Responses to isoprenaline were examined in both conscious and anaesthetised dogs pretreated with digoxin, and compared with conscious or anaesthetised controls with no digoxin pretreatment. Isoprenaline infusion (0.001-0.1 micrograms.kg-1.min-1) in pretreated groups was performed 7 d after digoxin dosing was stopped, when plasma digoxin concentrations were zero. SUBJECTS: Mongrel dogs of either sex (15-25 kg) were used in the experiments, done under anaesthetic. They were divided into three groups (n = 6 per group): group A were controls; groups B and C were pretreated with digoxin 500-750 micrograms.d-1, for 14 d (B) and 7 d (C). For the experiments in conscious animals, six mongrel dogs (25-30 kg) and two greyhounds (25-30 kg) were used; group D (n = 6) were treated with digoxin for 20-40 d; group E (n = 2) were treated for 7 d. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Heart rate, blood pressure and myocardial contractility (dP/dt: integrated isometric tension) were measured during isoprenaline infusion. Digoxin pretreatment for 14 d did not significantly change the chronotropic or depressor responses to isoprenaline in anaesthetised dogs but there was a 10-fold increase in inotropic sensitivity to isoprenaline following withdrawal. When the pretreatment period was reduced to 7 d there was no change in any of the responses to isoprenaline. In conscious dogs there was also a significant increase in inotropic sensitivity to isoprenaline after digoxin withdrawal, but this was not so marked as in anaesthetised dogs. In conscious dogs chronotropic sensitivity to isoprenaline was also increased. CONCLUSIONS: It is possible that the inotropic effect maintained during the 2 weeks of digoxin treatment may cause substantial withdrawal of sympathetic tone to the heart, with a consequent increase in beta adrenoceptor number or sensitivity, which could be detected a week after digoxin withdrawal.

Anesthesia, General↗

PubMed1997

Electrophysiological correlates of higher states of consciousness during sleep in long-term practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation program.

Standard ambulatory night sleep electroencephalograph (EEG) of 11 long-term practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) program reporting "higher states of consciousness" during sleep (the experimental group) was compared to that of nine short-term practitioners and 11 non-practitioners. EEG tracings during stages 3 and 4 sleep showed the experimental group to have: 1) theta-alpha activity simultaneously with delta activity and 2) decreased chin electromyograph (EMG) during deep sleep (p = 0.002) compared to short-term practitioners. Spectral analysis fast Fourier transform (FFT) data of the first three cycles showed that: 3) the experimental subjects had significantly greater theta 2 (6-8 Hz)-alpha 1 (8-10 Hz) relative power during stages 3 and 4 than the combined control groups [t(30) = 5.5, p = 0.0000008] with no difference in time in delta; 4) there was a graded difference across groups during stages 3 and 4 in theta 2-alpha 1 power, with experimentals having greater power than short-term practitioners, who in turn had greater power than non-practitioners [t(30) = 5.08, p = 0.00002]; and 5) experimentals also had increased rapid eye movement (REM) density during REM periods compared to short-term practitioners (p = 0.04). Previous studies have found increased theta-alpha EEG activity during reported periods of "transcendental consciousness" during the TM technique. In the Vedic tradition, as described by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, transcendental consciousness is the first of a sequence of higher states. The maintenance of transcendental consciousness along with deep sleep is said to be a distinctive criterion of further, stabilized higher states of consciousness. The findings of this study are interpreted as physiological support for this model.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Auditory steady-state response and bispectral index for assessing level of consciousness during propofol sedation and hypnosis.

UNLABELLED: We assessed the effect of propofol on the auditory steady-state response (ASSR), bispectral (BIS) index, and level of consciousness in two experiments. In Experiment 1, propofol was infused in 11 subjects to obtain effect-site concentrations of 1, 2, 3, and 4 microg/mL. The ASSR and BIS index were recorded during baseline and at each concentration. The ASSR was evoked by monaural stimuli. Propofol caused a concentration-dependent decrease of the ASSR and BIS index values (r(2) = 0.76 and 0.93, respectively; P<0.0001). The prediction probability for loss of consciousness was 0.89, 0.96, and 0.94 for ASSR, BIS, and arterial blood concentration of propofol, respectively. In Experiment 2, we compared the effects of binaural versus monaural stimulus delivery on the ASSR in six subjects during awake baseline and propofol-induced unconsciousness. During baseline, the ASSR amplitude with binaural stimulation (0.47+/-0.13 microV, mean +/- SD) was significantly (P<0.002) larger than with monaural stimulation (0.35+/-0.11 microV). During unconsciousness, the amplitude was 0.09+/-0.09 microV with monaural and 0.06+/-0.04 microV with binaural stimulation (NS). The prediction probability for loss of consciousness was 0.97 (0.04 SE) for monaural and 1.00 (0.00 SE) for binaural delivery. We conclude that the ASSR and BIS index are attenuated in a concentration-dependent manner by propofol and provide a useful measure of its sedative and hypnotic effect. BIS was easier to use and slightly more sensitive. The ASSR should be recorded with binaural stimulation. The ASSR and BIS index are both useful for assessing the level of consciousness during sedation and hypnosis with propofol. However, the BIS index was simpler to use and provided a more sensitive measure of sedation. IMPLICATIONS: We have compared two methods for predicting whether the amount of propofol given to a human subject is sufficient to cause unconsciousness, defined as failure to respond to a simple verbal command. The two methods studied are the auditory steady-state response, which measures the electrical response of the brain to sound, and the bispectral index, which is a number derived from the electroencephalogram. The results showed that both methods are very good predictors of the level of consciousness; however, bispectral was easier to use.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Halothane alters the oxygen consumption-oxygen delivery relationship compared with conscious state.

The authors' objectives were as follows: 1) to characterize for the first time the relationship between whole body O2 delivery (DO2) and O2 consumption (VO2) in adult conscious dogs; and 2) to asses the effects of the inhalational anesthetic, halothane, on that relationship. DO2 was varied over a wide range in chronically instrumented dogs by gradual inflation and deflation of a hydraulic occluder implanted around the thoracic inferior vena cava to alter venous return and cardiac output. VO2 was measured at different values of DO2 in dogs in the fully conscious state and again during halothane anesthesia. A "binning" technique indicated that halothane decreased VO2 (P less than 0.01) at any given value of DO2 over a broad range of VO2. A two-line piecewise linear regression analysis technique indicated that halothane decreased (P less than 0.01) the critical O2 delivery (COD) from 20 +/- 3 to 10 +/- 1 ml.kg-1.min-1 and increased (P less than 0.01) O2 extraction at COD from 31 +/- 3 to 40 +/- 2%. However, the DO2-VO2 plots measured in both conscious and halothane-anesthetized dogs did not exhibit a discrete discontinuity but rather were closely fit (correlation coefficient = 0.98) by an exponential equation of the following form: O2 extraction = B1.(1 - exp (-DO2/B2))/DO2, where B1 is the delivery-independent estimate of VO2 and B2 is the "delivery constant," i.e., the DO2 associated with a VO2 equal to 63% of B1. Halothane decreased B1 (P less than 0.01) from 5.3 +/- 0.1 to 3.9 +/- 0.1 ml.kg-1.min-1 and decreased B2 (P less than 0.01) from 5.6 +/- 0.3 to 3.6 +/- 0.3 ml.kg-1.min-1 compared with that measured in conscious dogs. Thus, compared with the conscious state, halothane anesthesia alters the fundamental relationship between DO2 and VO2 and may have a beneficial effect on tissue oxygenation at low values of DO2.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Amrinone and the pulmonary vascular pressure-flow relationship in conscious control dogs and following left lung autotransplantation.

BACKGROUND: Amrinone, a bipyridine compound, is known to improve left ventricular function via its positive inotropic and afterload-reducing effects. The goal of this study was to assess the efficacy of amrinone as a pulmonary vasodilator, an effect that could be beneficial in the setting of right heart failure associated with pulmonary hypertension. METHODS: Investigated were the effects of intravenous amrinone (750 micrograms/kg loading dose plus 1-20 micrograms.kg-1.min-1 maintenance dose) on the left pulmonary vascular pressure-flow (LPQ) relationship in chronically instrumented, conscious dogs. The effects of amrinone on the LPQ relationship were assessed in a series of conscious control dogs with (n = 10) and without (n = 9) acute preconstriction with the thromboxane analog U46619 and in a series of conscious dogs 2-4 weeks after left lung autotransplantation (LLA) with (n = 8) and without (n = 8) acute U46619 preconstriction. Left pulmonary vascular pressure-flow plots were generated by continuously measuring the pulmonary vascular pressure gradient (pulmonary arterial pressure/left atrial pressure [PAP/LAP]) and left pulmonary blood flow during gradual (approximately 1 min) inflation of a hydraulic occluder implanted around the right pulmonary artery. RESULTS: Amrinone had no effect on the baseline LPQ relationship in control dogs. U46619 caused acute pulmonary vasoconstriction. For example, PAP/LAP at left pulmonary blood flow of 70 ml.min-1.kg-1 was increased (P < 0.01) from 16 +/- 2 to 37 +/- 2 mmHg during U46619 administration. In this setting of acute preconstriction, amrinone caused pulmonary vasodilation, i.e., PAP/LAP was decreased (P < 0.05) from 37 +/- 2 to 32 +/- 2 mmHg. Left lung autotransplantation was associated with a marked shift in the LPQ relationship, indicating a chronic increase in pulmonary vascular resistance, i.e., PAP/LAP was increased (P < 0.01) from 15 +/- 2 to 32 +/- 3 mmHg. Despite the chronic increase in pulmonary vascular resistance after LLA, amrinone had no effect on the baseline LPQ relationship. However, after acute preconstriction with U46619 after LLA, amrinone caused pulmonary vasodilation, i.e., PAP/LAP was decreased (P < 0.05) from 45 +/- 4 to 39 +/- 4 mmHg. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that amrinone exerts a significant, although relatively modest pulmonary vasodilator influence in the setting of acute pulmonary vasoconstriction in conscious control dogs and in conscious dogs after LLA. However, amrinone did not reverse the chronic increase in pulmonary vascular resistance associated with LLA.

Amrinone↗

PubMed1993

Amrinone enhances myocardial contractility and improves left ventricular diastolic function in conscious and anesthetized chronically instrumented dogs.

BACKGROUND: Volatile anesthetics depress left ventricular mechanical performance in vivo by altering intracellular calcium regulation. Although amrinone has been shown to reverse the negative inotropic effects of volatile anesthetics, the actions of amrinone on anesthetic-induced diastolic dysfunction are unknown. This investigation examined and compared the direct effects of amrinone on left ventricular systolic and diastolic function in conscious and anesthetized dogs. METHODS: Experiments were conducted in the presence of pharmacologic blockade of the autonomic nervous system, because autonomic activity may influence the hemodynamic actions of volatile anesthetics and amrinone in vivo. Three groups, comprising a total of 27 experiments, were conducted using 9 dogs chronically instrumented for measurement of aortic and left ventricular pressure, left ventricular dP/dt, subendocardial segment length, diastolic coronary blood flow velocity, and cardiac output. Myocardial contractility was evaluated using the preload recruitable stroke work relationship slope (Mw). Diastolic function was characterized by a time constant of isovolumic relaxation (tau), a regional chamber stiffness constant (KT), and maximum segment lengthening velocity during rapid ventricular filling (dL/dtmax). On three separate days, an amrinone bolus of 1 mg/kg, followed by an infusion at 10, 20, 40, or 80 micrograms.kg-1.min-1, was administered. Hemodynamics and ventricular pressure-segment length loops and waveforms were recorded after a 15-min equilibration at each dose in the conscious state or during isoflurane or halothane anesthesia (1.25 MAC). RESULTS: In conscious dogs, amrinone significantly increased myocardial contractility in a dose-dependent manner (Mw of 65 +/- 8 to 108 +/- 10 mmHg at the high dose). Amrinone also shortened isovolumic relaxation (tau of 32.7 +/- 2.1 to 24.8 +/- 0.9 ms at the high dose) and enhanced rapid ventricular filling (dL/dtmax of 34.8 +/- 1.2 to 45.1 +/- 2.3 mm/s at the high dose) in a dose-related fashion. In addition, amrinone reduced regional chamber stiffness (Kp of 0.49 +/- 0.09 to 0.31 +/- 0.08 mm/s at the high dose) in conscious dogs. Amrinone also enhanced left ventricular systolic (increase in Mw) and diastolic function (decreases in tau and Kp and increases in dL/dtmax) when this drug was administered to dogs anesthetized with isoflurane or halothane. CONCLUSIONS: Amrinone produced positive inotropic and lusitropic effects in both conscious and anesthetized dogs with autonomic nervous system blockade. These results indicate that amrinone-induced improvement of left ventricular performance are related to actions in diastole, as well as systole.

Amrinone↗

PubMed1998

The asynchrony of consciousness.

We present below a simple hypothesis on what we believe is a characteristic of visual consciousness. It is derived from facts about the visual brain revealed in the past quarter of a century, but it relies most especially on psychophysical evidence which shows that different attributes of the visual scene are consciously perceived at different times. This temporal asynchrony in visual perception reveals, we believe, a plurality of visual consciousnesses that are asynchronous with respect to each other, reflecting the modular organization of the visual brain. We further hypothesize that when two attributes (e.g. colour and motion) are presented simultaneously, the activity of cells in a given processing system is sufficient to create a conscious experience of the corresponding attribute (e.g. colour), without the necessity for interaction with the activities of cells in other processing systems (e.g. motion). Thus, any binding of the activity of cells in different systems should be more properly thought of as a binding of the conscious experiences generated in each system.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Comparison of initial response to renal artery stenosis in pentobarbitone--anaethetized and conscious dogs.

1. Trained chronically-instrumented dogs were subjected to renal artery stenosis twice. A 50 mmHg stenosis pressure gradient was established while the dogs were conscious or anaethetized with pentobarbitone and prepared for renal surgery. 2. Prior to stenosis, the anaesthetized dogs had significantly higher mean arterial pressure, renal vascular resistance and plasms renin activity than when they were conscious. 3. Twenty-four hours after stenosis, when all dogs were fully conscious, significant elevations in mean arterial pressure and plasma renin activity were seen only in the dogs anaesthetized for stenosis production. Creatinine clearance over this period was also markedly less than after renal artery stenosis of conscious animals. 4. It seems likely that more severe renal artery stenosis is required to produce a given pressure gradient in anaesthetized dogs than in the conscious dogs.

Anesthesia↗

PubMed2004

Adequate conscious life and age-related need: F.M. Kamm's approach to patient selection.

Kamm's approach to patient selection qualifies the notion that fairness makes need for scarce, transplantable organs inversely proportional to age. She defines need as how much adequate conscious life a person will have had before death. Length of adequate conscious life correlates highly with age. If so, then younger persons are usually needier than older ones. Since Kamm allows for past periods of non-adequate conscious life, I argue that this correlation may be neither as close, nor as easy to apply, as she wants it to be. Fairness should require assessment of experiential content in determining how long one's life has been adequately conscious. I argue that such assessments involve some of the goods of experience and quality of life judgements that Kamm thinks a reliance on adequate conscious life will avoid.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2006

Diagnosis, treatment and follow up of women undergoing conscious pain mapping for chronic pelvic pain: a prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy of conscious pain mapping in diagnosing and treating chronic pelvic pain (CPP). DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. Setting Gynaecology Department, UK District General Hospital. POPULATION: Forty-three women diagnosed with CPP. METHODS: The cohort was followed up for 18-24 months after diagnosis and treatment based on conscious pain mapping. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Improvement of pain assessed by using visual analogue scale (VAS) pain scores at 6-month follow up. RESULTS: Thirty-nine women had successful conscious pain mapping. Pelvic pathology was identified in 18, pelvic congestion in 13 and 8 women had normal pelvic organs. In 35 women (90%), conscious pain mapping identified the cause of pain. Five out of eight women (63%) who were judged to have a normal pelvis had positive findings at pain mapping. VAS scores fell significantly from pre-treatment to post-treatment values at 6-month follow up (P < 0.01). Overall, 26 women (74%) felt that their symptoms had improved after treatment based on findings at pain mapping. However, we concluded that pain mapping only contributed to the diagnosis and treatment in seven women (27%), who may not have received appropriate diagnosis and treatment if they had a laparoscopy under general anaesthetic. Conclusions CONSCIOUS: pain mapping is a useful additional investigation in the management of women with CPP. It can be employed in women with a negative laparoscopy or with visible pathology where the conventional treatment has failed.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Concentrations of sulfur-containing free amino acids in lumbar cerebrospinal fluid from patients with consciousness disturbances.

The concentrations of sulfur-containing amino acids (taurine, methionine, cystine, cystathionine, homocystine) in lumbar CSF from patients with consciousness disturbances and controls were measured, and it was investigated whether there was any correlation between the sequential changes of these amino acid concentrations and of the level of consciousness. In all patients, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) was administered and the changes of levels of consciousness and amino acid concentrations were followed before and after administration. The concentrations of taurine and cystathionine from the patients were significantly lower, and methionine and cystine significantly higher than those from the controls; they returned to the control values in parallel with improvement of consciousness level. Homocystine was not detected in either patients or controls. These results suggest that the alteration in the level of consciousness is associated with distortion of sulfur-containing amino acid metabolism within the central nervous system, at least in the CSF.

Adolescent↗