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PubMed1997

The LKLF transcription factor is required for normal tunica media formation and blood vessel stabilization during murine embryogenesis.

The transcriptional programs that regulate blood vessel formation are largely unknown. In this paper, we examine the role of the zinc finger transcription factor LKLF in murine blood vessel morphogenesis and homeostasis. By in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, we show that LKLF is expressed as early as embryonic day 9.5 (E9.5) in vascular endothelial cells throughout the developing mouse embryo. To better understand the function of LKLF, we used homologous recombination in embryonic stem (ES) cells to generate LKLF-deficient (LKLF-/-) mice. Both angiogenesis and vasculogenesis were normal in the LKLF-/- mice. However, LKLF-/- embryos died between E12.5 and E14.5 from severe intra-embryonic and intra-amniotic hemorrhaging. This bleeding disorder was associated with specific defects in blood vessel morphology. Umbilical veins and arteries in the LKLF-/- embryos displayed an abnormally thin tunica media and aneurysmal dilatation before rupturing into the amniotic cavity. Similarly, vascular smooth muscle cells in the aortae from the LKLF-/- animals displayed a cuboidal morphology and failed to organize into a compact tunica media. Consistent with these findings, electron microscopic analyses demonstrated endothelial cell necrosis, significant reductions in the number of vessel-wall pericytes and differentiating smooth muscle cells, and decreased deposition of extracellular matrix in the LKLF-/- vessels. Despite these defects, in situ hybridization demonstrated normal expression of platelet-derived growth factor B, Tie1, Tie2, transforming growth factor beta, and heparin-binding epidermal growth factor in the vasculature of the LKLF-/- embryos. Therefore, LKLF defines a novel transcriptional pathway in which endothelial cells regulate the assembly of the vascular tunica media and concomitant vessel wall stabilization during mammalian embryogenesis.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Alkaline phosphatase activity in the inner ear blood vessels of some mammals.

The distribuation pattern of alkaline phosphatase in small blood vessels was studied histochemically in the stria vascularis and spiral ligament of various mammals. No or extremely weak activity of the enzyme was demonstrated in the walls of the blood vessels in bat and rabbit, while moderate to intense activity was found in guinea pig, cat, squirrel monkey and man. There was a species difference in the phosphate metabolism in the walls of the inner ear blood vessels.

Alkaline Phosphatase↗
PubMed1984

Norepinephrine turnover in the heart and blood vessels of rats subjected to bilateral renal infarction.

The total norepinephrine (NE) content, the uptake of [3H]NE, the turnover rate and the synthesis rate of the neurotransmitter at the heart and blood vessels have been studied during the development of hypertension in rats subjected to bilateral renal infarction. Normal and sham-operated rats were used as controls. Fifty percent of the rats with renal infarction became hypertensive. The weight of the hearts and blood vessels of the experimental animals was significantly increased 15 days after renal infarction. Changes were greater in hypertensive animals. NE concentration in the heart was slightly decreased without achieving statistical significance, while total NE content was unchanged. In the artery wall NE concentration was significantly decreased in normotensive and hypertensive operated rats. [3H]NE uptake in the heart and blood vessels was similar in experimental and control animals. In relation to NE turnover, in both the heart and blood vessels, normal and sham-operated animals behaved as one population while normotensive and hypertensive rats behaved as another population. The rate constant of NE turnover was increased in both tissues of operated experimental animals without achieving statistical significance in the case of the heart. NE synthesis rate was unchanged in the cardiac muscle but was significantly increased in the blood vessels of operated animals. Present data indicate that results describing NE dynamics in the heart cannot be extrapolated for the blood vessels level; on the other hand changes in the neurotransmitter do not seem to be related to the development of high blood pressure after renal infarction in the rat.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

A quantitative study of the coincidence of blood vessels and A4 protein deposits in Alzheimer's disease.

The spatial relationship between A4 protein deposits and blood vessels in the brains of 6 elderly cases of Alzheimer's disease has been investigated. Sections were taken from medial temporal cortex and were double immunostained for A4 protein and type IV collagen, the latter being employed as a marker of blood vessels. By comparing the observed area of vessel overlying A4 deposit with that predicted from the product of A4 deposit and blood vessel area fractions it is shown that, contrary to expectations, the likelihood of a vessel co-inciding with an A4 deposit is less than would be expected by chance. It would therefore appear that the previously described positive association between A4 deposits and blood vessels reflects the abundance of A4 and the high vascularity of the cortex rather than any specific correlation between the two features.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Accurate measurement of blood vessel depth in port wine stained human skin in vivo using pulsed photothermal radiometry.

We report on application of pulsed photothermal radiometry (PPTR) to determine the depth of port wine stain (PWS) blood vessels in human skin. When blood vessels are deep in the PWS skin (>100 microm), conventional PPTR depth profiling can be used to determine PWS depth with sufficient accuracy. When blood vessels are close or partially overlap the epidermal melanin layer, a modified PPTR technique using two-wavelength (585 and 600 nm) excitation is a superior method to determine PWS depth. A direct difference approach in which PWS depth is determined from a weighted difference of temperature profiles reconstructed independently from two-wavelength excitation is demonstrated to be appropriate for a wider range of PWS patients with various blood volume fractions, blood vessel sizes, and depth distribution. The most superficial PWS depths determined in vivo by PPTR are in good agreement with those measured using optical Doppler tomography (ODT).

Algorithms↗
PubMed2002

Opposing functions of the Ets factors NERF and ELF-1 during chicken blood vessel development.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of the Ets factor NERF in the regulation of the Tie1 and Tie2 genes during chicken blood vessel development. METHODS AND RESULTS: We have isolated the full-length cDNA for the chicken homologue of the human Ets factor NERF2 (cNERF2). Northern blot analysis and in situ hybridization demonstrate that cNERF2 is enriched in the developing blood vessels of the chicken chorioallantoic membrane. Interestingly, cNERF2 functions as a competitive inhibitor of a highly related Ets factor cELF-1, which we have previously shown to be enriched in chicken blood vessel development. Although in vitro-translated cELF-1 and cNERF2 can bind equally well to conserved Ets binding sites in the promoters of the Tie1 and Tie2 genes, cELF-1 preferentially binds to the Ets sites in these promoters during early stages of chicken blood vessel development, suggesting that cNERF may bind during later stages of blood vessel development and vascular remodeling. CONCLUSIONS: cNERF2 is enriched during embryonic and extraembryonic blood vessel development in the chicken and facilitates tight control of Tie1 and Tie2 gene regulation.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Early changes in iris blood vessels in exfoliation syndrome.

PURPOSE: To look for possible changes in iris blood vessels that might precede the formation of true exfoliation material, and to correlate these changes, if present, to aging of the iris. METHODS: Iris blood vessels of 10 clinically normal irises from 10 eyes (ages: 1 day-80 years), 4 irises with exfoliation (ages: 64-80 years) and 3 irises from primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) (ages: 27-65 years) were examined with an electron microscope. RESULTS: Pronounced multilayering of the basal lamina around the vessels, abnormal excessive formation of microfibrils, presence of atrophic invaginations in the outer cell membranes of endothelial cells containing interlacing basal lamina, and an apparent decrease in the perivascular collagen fibers were evident in exfoliative iris vessels devoid of true exfoliation material. Similar, but much milder, changes were evident in normal aged and POAG irises. CONCLUSIONS: Abnormal elastic tissue and/or basal lamina production plays a role early in the formation of exfoliation material around iris blood vessels.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

ETA receptor-mediated constrictor responses to endothelin peptides in human blood vessels in vitro.

1. We have characterized the constrictor endothelin receptors present in human isolated blood vessels using ETA and ETB selective agonists and antagonists. 2. Monophasic dose-response curves were obtained for ET-1 with EC50 values of 6.8 nM in coronary artery, 3.9 nM in internal mammary artery, 17.4 nM in pulmonary artery, 14.5 nM in aorta and 3.2 nM in saphenous vein. In coronary artery, ET-2 was equipotent with ET-1 with an EC50 value of 5.7 nM. The non-selective peptide, sarafotoxin 6b, was 2-3 times less potent than ET-1 but the maximum responses to these two were comparable. 3. In each vessel ET-3 was much less active than ET-1. No response was obtained to ET-3 in aorta and pulmonary artery or in up to 50% of coronary artery, mammary artery and saphenous vein preparations. In those preparations that did respond, dose-response curves were incomplete at 300 nM. Variable contractions were also obtained with the ETB-selective agonist, sarafotoxin 6c (S6c). Where responses were detected, although S6c was more potent than ET-1 (EC50 values of 0.6-1.2 nM), the maximum response produced was always less than 20% of that to ET-1. 4. The synthetic ETB agonists, BQ3020 and [1,3,11,15Ala]-ET-1, were without effect in any of the five blood vessels at concentrations up to 3 microM. 5. ET-1-induced vasoconstriction was blocked by the ETA-selective antagonists, BQ123 and FR139317. Schild-derived pA2 values were 7.0, 7.4 and 6.9 for BQ123 and 7.6, 7.9 and 7.3 for FR139317 in coronary artery, mammary artery and saphenous vein, respectively, consistent with antagonism of ETA receptors. Slopes of the Schild regressions were not significantly different from one. Comparable values of pA2 were estimated for 3ftM BQ123 in aorta (7.4+/-0.5) and pulmonary artery (6.9) from the Gaddum-Schild equation.6. In conclusion we have shown that in human isolated blood vessels, ET-1 is more potent than ET-3 suggesting the presence of vasoconstrictor ETA receptors. This is supported by the lack of effect of the ETB agonists, BQ3020 and [1,3,1,1,15Ala]-ET-l and the ability of the ETA antagonists, BQ123 andFR139317 to block ET-1 responses. Some preparations did contract in response to low concentrations of the ETB-selective sarafotoxin 6c but responses were variable and the maximum was always much less than that to ET-1 in the same preparations. Therefore although constrictor ETB receptors were present on the smooth muscle of human blood vessels, vasoconstriction elicited by the endothelin peptides in vitro is via ETA receptor activation.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Comparison of convolution and ray-tracing methods for computing small blood vessel images in angiography.

Two methods for computing x-ray images of small blood vessels in angiography are presently available, namely, convolution and ray tracing. The convolution method, which is simpler and more powerful than the ray-tracing method, is based on the assumption that blood vessel imaging is isoplantic, whereas ray tracing is considered to provide correct images. In this study, the approximation error (difference between two images, normalized by the maximum value) due to nonisoplanatic imaging was determined by computation of blood vessel images according to both methods. The approximation error for geometric conditions normally encountered in angiography was less than 0.01. It is concluded that an approximation error of this magnitude is negligible and that the convolution method can be applied instead of the ray-tracing method for the computation of images of small blood vessels.

Angiography↗
PubMed2006

The analysis and diagnosis of unstable behavior of the blood vessel wall with an aneurysm based on noise science.

Previously, one of the authors developed a noninvasive measurement method of acceleration and deceleration during the expansion process of the blood vessel wall under pulsatile pressure flow by measuring the strain rate of the blood vessel wall using a supersonic Doppler effect sensor aided by computer analysis (DPC method). In this paper, on the basis of the analysis of chaos theory, that is, the complexity of science, the unstable behavior of the blood vessel wall with an aneurysm was investigated by identifying the characteristic DPC wave forms induced by the onset and progression of aneurysm. These results showed that unstable dynamic behavior of the blood vessel wall occurs due to the progression of the aneurysm. Furthermore, using the theoretical analysis of chaos, this unstable behavior of the blood vessel wall was quantified and the fundamental principle of a noninvasive diagnostic method of the progressive degree of aneurysm was proposed.

Aneurysm↗
PubMed2005

Modulation of nitric oxide synthase activity in brain, liver, and blood vessels of spontaneously hypertensive rats by ascorbic acid: protection from free radical injury.

End organ damage in essential hypertension has been linked to increased oxygen free radical generation, reduced antioxidant defense, and/or attenuation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity. Ascorbic acid (AA), a water-soluble antioxidant, has been reported as a strong defense against free radicals in both aqueous and nonaqueous environment. In this study we examined the hypothesis that antioxidant ascorbic acid may confer protection from increased free radical activity in brain, liver, and blood vessels of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Male SHRs were divided into groups: SHR + AA (treated with AA, 1 mg/rat/day; for 12 weeks) or SHR (untreated). Wister-Kyoto rats (WKY) served as the control. Mean systolic blood pressure (SBP) in treated and untreated SHR was 145 +/- 7 mmHg and 142 +/- 8 mmHg, respectively. AA treatment prevented the increase in systolic blood pressure in SHR by 37 +/- 1% (p < 0.05). NOS activity in the brain, liver, and blood vessels of WKY rat was 1.82 +/- 0.02, 0.14 +/- 0.003, and 1.54 +/- 0.06 pmol citruline/mg protein, respectively. In SHR, total NOS activity was significantly reduced by 52 +/- 1%, 21 +/- 3%, and 44 +/- 4%, respectively. AA increased NOS activity in brain, liver, and blood vessels of SHR from 0.87 +/-.03, 0.11 +/-.01, and 0.87 +/-.08 pmol citruline/mg protein to 0.93 +/- 0.01, 0.13 +/- 0.001, and 1.11 +/- 0.03 pmol citruline/mg protein (p < 0.05), respectively. Lipid peroxides in the brain, liver, and blood vessels from WKY rats were 0.87 +/- 0.06, 0.11 +/- 0.005, and 0.47 +/- 0.04 nmol MDA equiv/mg protein, respectively. In SHR, lipid peroxides in brain, liver, and blood vessels were significantly increased by 40 +/- 3%, 64 +/- 3%, and 104 +/- 13%, respectively. AA reduced lipid peroxidation in liver and blood vessels by 17 +/- 1% and 34 +/- 3% but not in brain. Plasma lipid peroxides were almost doubled in SHR (p < 0.01) together with a reduction in total antioxidant status (6 +/- 0.1%; p < 0.05), nitrite (53 +/- 2%; p < 0.05) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity (36 +/- 2%; p < 0.05). AA treatment reduced plasma lipid peroxide (p < 0.001), and increased TAS (p < 0.001), nitrite (p < 0.001), and SOD activity (p < 0.001). From this study, we conclude that brain, liver, and blood vessels in SHR are susceptible to free radical injury, which reduces the availability of NO either by scavenging it or by reducing its production via inhibiting NOS. In addition, brain, liver, and blood vessels in SHR; may be protected by antioxidant, which improves total antioxidant status, and SOD thus may prevent high blood pressure and its complications.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Heterogeneity of alpha 1-adrenoceptor subtypes involved in adrenergic contractions of dog blood vessels.

1. We determined the alpha 1-adrenoceptor subtypes involved in adrenergic contractions of eight different blood vessels isolated from the dog. 2. Noradrenaline produced concentration-dependent contractions in all the blood vessels tested, which were competitively inhibited by prazosin, WB4101, HV723 and 5-methylurapidil. However, there was considerable difference between the vessels with regard to the pKB values for all the antagonists. The alpha 1-adrenoceptors of dog vertebral and carotid arteries had high affinity for prazosin (pKB > 9.0) but low affinity for WB4101 (< 8.5), 5-methylurapidil (< 7.5) and HV723 (< or = 8.5). By contrast, HV723 had higher affinity (> 9.0) than prazosin (< 8.3), WB4101 (< 8.7) and 5-methylurapidil (< 8.2) in the portal vein, mesenteric artery and vein, and renal artery. In the femoral artery and vein, however, the four antagonists showed pKB values in the range 8.0-8.7. 3. Chloroethylclonidine (10 microM) produced a remarkable reduction of the contractile responses to noradrenaline in the vertebral and carotid arteries as compared with those in the other vessels. Nifedipine inhibited the responses to noradrenaline in all the tissues tested, and had marked effects in the portal vein. 4. Sympathetic adrenergic contractions induced by transmural electrical stimulation were also inhibited by prazosin and HV723 at different potencies among tissues. The relative potencies of both the antagonists paralleled the relationship in inhibiting the responses to exogenous noradrenaline in each vessel. 5. According to recent alpha l-adrenoceptor subclassification, the present results suggest that the contractions of blood vessels induced by endogenous and exogenous noradrenaline are mediated through different alpha l-adrenoceptor subtypes heterogeneously distributed in each vessel; presumably, the alpha 1 B subtype in the carotid and vertebral arteries, the alpha IN subtype in the visceral region and the alpha IL subtype in the femoral region. Regionally different expression of alpha 1-adrenoceptor subtypes may be in part associated with the regional heterogeneity of sympathetic responses in the blood vessels.

Acetonitriles↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Development of blood vessels of the greater omentum in the hepatic lobe after vascular ligation. An experimental model in the rats].

PURPOSE: To verify the development of blood vessels between the greater omentum and the liver in the presence of distinct liver blood intake blockages. METHODS: Two hundred and eighty conventional male Wistar rats were used, divided into 5 groups: control (n=35), laparotomy (n=35); hepatic artery ligature (n=70), ligature of the right-hand branch of the portal vein (n=70); and ligature of both blood vessels (n=70). The last three groups were divided into two subgroups each (n=35), according to the presence or absence of the transposition of the greater omentum onto the right hepatic lobe. The postoperative periods were 1, 3, 7, 15, 30, 60 and 90 days. At the end of each period, the greater omentum and right hepatic lobe were collected for histopathological examination. The presence of blood vessels between the referred tissues was verified by the administration of Indian ink as a marker of vascular lumen. RESULTS: Macroscopic and microscopic observation and the dye marker demonstrated the distribution of blood vessels between the greater omentum and liver tissues. CONCLUSION: The greater omentum was capable of developing blood vessels when fixed to the parenchyma of the liver after the suppression of hepatic blood flow.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Tissue-engineered human vascular media produced in vitro by the self-assembly approach present functional properties similar to those of their native blood vessels.

We have developed a tissue-engineering approach for the production of a completely biological blood vessel from cultured human cells. In the present study, we took advantage of this tissue-engineering method to demonstrate that it can be used to reproduce the subtle differences in the expression of receptors present on the media of native human blood vessels. Indeed, a small percentage (3 of 18) of native human umbilical cord veins (HUCVs) responded to endothelin, the most powerful vasopressor agent known to date, via both endothelin A (ET(A)) and endothelin B (ET(B)) receptor activation. In contrast, most HUCVs tested responded to ET via ET(A) receptor activation only. Tissue-engineered vascular media (TEVM) were next reconstructed by using vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) isolated and cultured from HUCVs expressing both ET(A) and ET(B) receptors to determine the functional integrity of our TEVM model. The reconstructed TEVM presents an endothelin response similar to that of respective HUCVs from which VSMCs were isolated. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction on TEVM reconstructed in vitro correlated these vasocontractile profiles by showing the presence of messenger RNA for both ET(A) and ET(B) receptors. Taken together with recently published results on TEVM expressing only ET(A) receptor, these results show that our reconstructed TEVM present a similar ET response profile as the blood vessel from which the VSMCs were isolated and cultured. These findings indicate that subtle differences, such as receptor expression, are preserved in the reconstructed tissue. Therefore, our TEVM offers a valuable human in vitro model with which to study the functionality of human blood vessels, such as their vasoactive response, or to perform pharmacologic studies.

Blood Vessels↗
PubMed2004

Origin of PACAP-immunoreactive nerve fibers innervating the subarachnoidal blood vessels of the rat brain.

The subarachnoidal cerebral blood vessels of the rat are innervated by nerve fibers containing different neuropeptides, e.g. pituitary adenylatecyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP). PACAP dilates brain arterioles and immunohistochemical studies of the rat have indicated that PACAP binds to a VPAC1-receptor in the cerebral vasculature of this species. We have investigated the perikaryal origin of the nerve fibers innervating the subarachnoidal blood vessels of the rat by combined retrograde tracing with Fluorogold and immunohistochemistry. The in vivo neuronal retrograde tracings were done by injection of 2% Fluorogold in water into the subarachnoidal space in the area of the middle cerebral artery. The retrograde transported tracer was detected by use of an antibody against Fluorogold. One week after the injections, the animals were vascularly perfused with Stephanini's fixative and labeled perikarya were found bilaterally in the trigeminal, sphenopalatine, and otic ganglia. The retrograde Fluorogold tracings were combined with immunohistochemistry for PACAP using a mouse monoclonal antibody and the biotinylated tyramide amplification system. Double labeled perikarya containing both Fluoro-gold and PACAP were found predominantly in the trigeminal ganglion, and only rarely in the otic and sphenopalatine ganglion. Summarizing, our retrograde tracings combined with immunohistochemistry indicate that the perikarya in the trigeminal ganglion are the main origin of PACAPergic nerve fibers projecting to the cerebral vasculature of the rat.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Endothelium properties of a tissue-engineered blood vessel for small-diameter vascular reconstruction.

PURPOSE: A tissue-engineered blood vessel (TEBV) produced in vitro by the self-assembly method was developed in our laboratory for the replacement of small-diameter blood vessels. The interior of this vessel is covered by an endothelium. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the endothelial layer would make a favorable contribution at the time of implantation of the TEBV by investigating in vitro the hemocompatible properties of the endothelial cells covering its interior. METHODS: The secretion of the von Willebrand factor (vWF) and expression of thrombomodulin by the endothelium were assessed, and the adhesive molecules E-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) were quantified as a function of maturation time. To evaluate the functional response of the endothelium on injury, the cellular response to physiological stimulatory factors (thrombin and lipopolysaccharide [LPS]) was analyzed. RESULTS: The endothelial cells formed a confluent monolayer displaying favorable hemocompatible properties (78% +/- 10% of cells expressing thrombomodulin with only 12 +/- 3 mU/10(6) cells of vWF secreted over a 2-hour period), which acquired their full expression after a culture period of 4 days. Moreover, pro-adhesive properties toward inflammatory cells were not observed. The cells were also able to respond to physiological-stimulating agents (thrombin and LPS) and demonstrated a statistically significant overexpression of the corresponding molecules under the conditions tested. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that the endothelium of the tissue-engineered blood vessel produced by the self-assembly approach displays advantageous qualities with regard to the vessel's future implantation as a small-diameter vascular prosthesis.

Blood Vessels↗
PubMed2005

[Study on the vasodilation effect of blood vessel and its mechanism by the extract of bu shen huo xue recipe].

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of the extract of Bu Shen Huo Xue Recipe on blood vessel and the content of NO, NOS, cNOS and iNOS in plasma and aortic tissue. METHODS: The effect of blood vessels was studied by guinea pig mesentery blood capillary, rat aortic ring and celiac vein ring. The content of NO, NOS, cNOS and iNOS were determined by method of nitroreductase chromatometry in plasma and aortic tissue. RESULTS: The extract of Bu Shen Huo Xue Recipe could significantly increase the sum of crisscross blood capillary, improve bloodstream state and speed. The significantly vasodilating effect induced by the extract of Bu Shen Huo Xue Recipe was seen in rat aortic ring and celiac vein (based on 10 micromol/L phenylephrine-induced concentration). But there was contracting effect in denuded endothelium. The relaxations induced by the extract on blood vessels mentioned above were markedly attenuated by preincubation in organ chambers with glibenclamide (1 micromol/L), the same effect in lower dose with propranolol (3 micromol/L), the contractional effect in high dose with propranolol (3 micromol/L). The extract in high dose could significantly affect the content of NO in plasma, increase the content of NO, NOS and cNOS in aortic tissue. CONCLUSION: The mechanism of vasodilation effect of blood vessel of the extract may be related to releasing NO from endothelium of blood vessels and increasing the content of synthetic NOS and cNOS in aortic tissue.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Distributions of adipocyte, blood vessel, and muscle fiber in human lateral petrygoid muscle during ageing.

The composition of adipocyte, blood vessel, and muscle fiber during ageing from 30 to 90 years of age was examined by a computer analyzing system in human lateral petrygoid muscle. The human lateral petrygoid muscle, the intramuscular connective tissue with adipocyte and blood vessel, displayed a specific change in morphology during ageing. Numerous adipocyte appeared around the blood vessel in the perimysium of the human petrygoid muscle from 60 years of age. The percentage and size of adipocyte and vein per 10,000 micron 2 of the cross sectional area in the muscle increased as well. However, the cross sectional area of muscle fiber was almost constant. The increase of adipocyte was related with changes of blood vessel and connective tissue in the perimysium.

Adipocytes↗