The taxonomy of the cestode genus Aporina with a discussion on the systematic positions of the species assigned to it.
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Animals↗
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Critical thinking in undergraduate athletic training education.
OBJECTIVE: The purposes of this study were (a) to determine whether or not undergraduate athletic training educators are writing learning objectives that foster critical thinking (CT) skills, and (b) to determine if their written assignments and written examinations are measuring the extent to which students have developed CT skills. DESIGN AND SETTING: Thirty institutions seeking accreditation for their athletic training programs from the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Educational Programs in the 1994-95 academic year were asked to provide their curriculum materials (course syllabus, two to three examinations, or both from each athletic training-specific course). SUBJECTS: Thirteen curriculum directors (43%) provided materials. MEASUREMENTS: Each learning objective, examination question, and written assignment was classified as either CT or non-critical thinking (NCT) using Bloom's taxonomy. RESULTS: From 64 usable syllabi, a total of 678 learning objectives were classified as either CT (52%) or NCT (48%). From 81 written examinations, 3215 questions were classified as either CT (14%) or NCT (86%). In addition, a total of 143 written assignments were all classified as CT. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate that educators fostered more CT in their learning objectives and written assignments than in their written exams. Valid educational instruments (eg, Bloom's taxonomy) may help educators design learning objectives, assignments, and examinations.
Journal Article↗
Tumor taxonomy for the developmental lineage classification of neoplasms.
BACKGROUND: The new "Developmental lineage classification of neoplasms" was described in a prior publication. The classification is simple (the entire hierarchy is described with just 39 classifiers), comprehensive (providing a place for every tumor of man), and consistent with recent attempts to characterize tumors by cytogenetic and molecular features. A taxonomy is a list of the instances that populate a classification. The taxonomy of neoplasia attempts to list every known term for every known tumor of man. METHODS: The taxonomy provides each concept with a unique code and groups synonymous terms under the same concept. A Perl script validated successive drafts of the taxonomy ensuring that: 1) each term occurs only once in the taxonomy; 2) each term occurs in only one tumor class; 3) each concept code occurs in one and only one hierarchical position in the classification; and 4) the file containing the classification and taxonomy is a well-formed XML (eXtensible Markup Language) document. RESULTS: The taxonomy currently contains 122,632 different terms encompassing 5,376 neoplasm concepts. Each concept has, on average, 23 synonyms. The taxonomy populates "The developmental lineage classification of neoplasms," and is available as an XML file, currently 9+ Megabytes in length. A representation of the classification/taxonomy listing each term followed by its code, followed by its full ancestry, is available as a flat-file, 19+ Megabytes in length. The taxonomy is the largest nomenclature of neoplasms, with more than twice the number of neoplasm names found in other medical nomenclatures, including the 2004 version of the Unified Medical Language System, the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine Clinical Terminology, the National Cancer Institute's Thesaurus, and the International Classification of Diseases Oncolology version. CONCLUSIONS: This manuscript describes a comprehensive taxonomy of neoplasia that collects synonymous terms under a unique code number and assigns each tumor to a single class within the tumor hierarchy. The entire classification and taxonomy are available as open access files (in XML and flat-file formats) with this article.
Cell Lineage↗
Income differences in food consumption in the 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationships between an index of per capita income and the intake of a variety of individual foods as well as groups of food for men and women in different age groups. DESIGN: Cross-sectional national survey of free-living men and women. SUBJECTS: A sample of 5053 males and 5701 females aged 18 y and over who completed the Australian National Nutrition Survey 1995. METHODS: Information about the frequency of consumption of 88 food items was obtained. On the basis of scores on the Food Frequency Questionnaire, regular and irregular consumers of single foods were identified. The relationships between regularity of consumption of individual foods and per capita income were analysed via contingency tables. Food variety scores were derived by assigning individual foods to conventional food group taxonomies, and then summing up the dichotomised intake scores for individual foods within each food group. Two-way ANOVA (income x age group) were performed on the food variety scores for males and females, respectively. RESULTS: Per capita income was extensively related to the reported consumption of individual foods and to total and food group variety indices. Generally, both men and women in low income households had less varied diets than those in higher-income households. However, several traditional foods were consumed less often by young high-income respondents, especially young women. CONCLUSIONS: Major income differentials in food variety occur in Australia but they are moderated by age and gender. Younger high-income women, in particular, appear to have rejected a number of traditional foods, possibly on the basis of health beliefs. The findings also suggest that data aggregation has marked effects on income and food consumption relationships.
Adolescent↗
The relationship between education and food consumption in the 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between education and the intake of a variety of individual foods, as well as groups of foods, for Australian men and women in different age groups. DESIGN: Cross-sectional national survey of free-living men and women. SUBJECTS: A sample of 2501 men and 2739 women aged 18 years and over who completed the National Nutrition Survey (NNS) 1995. METHODS: Information about the frequency of consumption of 88 food items was obtained using a food-frequency questionnaire in a nation-wide nutrition survey. Irregular and regular consumers of foods were identified according to whether they consumed individual foods less than or more than once per month. The relationship between single foods and an index of education (no post-school qualifications, vocational, university) was analysed via contingency table chi-square statistics for men and women. Food group variety scores were derived by assigning individual foods to conventional food group taxonomies, and then summing the dichotomised intake scores for individual foods within each food group. Two-way analyses of variance (education by age groups) were performed on food variety scores for men and women, separately. RESULTS: While university-educated men and women consumed many individual foods more regularly than less-educated people, they were less likely to be regular consumers of several meat products. The relationship between education and food consumption was less apparent when individual food scores were aggregated into food group scores. University-educated men and women exhibited higher scores on total food group variety than the other educational groups. CONCLUSIONS: Higher education is associated with the regular consumption of a wider variety of foods. Aggregation of individual food consumption indices into food variety scores may mask the apparent effects of educational background on food consumption.
Adolescent↗
Evaluation of complete genome sequences and sequences of individual gene products for the classification of hepatitis C viruses.
Comparisons of genome and polyprotein sequences of hepatitis C virus (HCV) isolates world-wide has led to the identification of nine major genotypes and many subtypes. This classification is based on either complete genome/polyprotein sequences or sequence data from the 5' noncoding region, core, E1, NS3 or NS5B genes. The relative merit of different gene segments as taxonomic markers and the validity of the resulting assignments is not clear at this stage. To resolve the taxonomy of HCV genotypes and subtypes, we have compared the complete genome and polyprotein sequences of 19 HCV isolates available in the databases as well as sequences of individual genes and gene products of these isolates. Based on the correlation between sequence relationships and taxonomic assignments of other RNA viruses, we show that the nine major genotypes of HCV represent nine distinct virus species and their subtypes subspecies. Our sequence comparison of the 5' noncoding regions and the individual gene products suggests that E2, NS2, NS5B, E1, NS4A, NS4B and NS5A (in that order) are the most appropriate regions for the discrimination between species, subspecies and strains of HCV. The 5' noncoding, core and NS3 regions are less effective in distinguishing between species, subspecies and strains. Based on a comparison of the polymerase sequence identities of HCVs, pestiviruses and flaviviruses as well as the recent information on the size and morphology of HCV virions, we propose that HCVs, pestiviruses and flaviviruses should be classified into three separate families, named Hepciviridae, Pestiviridae and Flaviviridae, respectively rather than three genera of the Flaviviridae as currently classified. We also propose "Hepcivirus" as the genus name for HCVs.
Base Sequence↗
Evolutionary distinctiveness of the endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtle.
The endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempi) nests almost exclusively at a single locality in the western Gulf of Mexico, whereas the olive ridley (L. olivacea) nests globally in warm oceans. Morphological similarities between kempi and olivacea, and a geographical distribution that "...makes no sense at all under modern conditions of climate and geography", raise questions about the degree of evolutionary divergence between these taxa. Analysis of mitochondrial (mt) DNA restriction sites shows that Kemp's ridley is distinct from the olive ridley in matriarchal phylogeny, and that the two are sister taxa with respect to other marine turtles. Separation of olive and the Kemp's ridley lineages may date to formation of the Isthmus of Panama, whereas the global spread of the olive ridley lineage occurred recently. In contrast to recent examples in which molecular genetic assessments challenged systematic assignments underlying conservation programmes, our mtDNA data corroborate the taxonomy of an endangered form.
Animals↗
Sequence analysis of domains III and IV of the 23S rRNA gene of verticillate streptomycetes.
Domains III and IV of the 23S rRNA gene of 25 strains of verticillate streptomycetes were sequenced. None of the sequences was identical to any other, with regions of variability being restricted to parts of helices 54 and 64. No relationships were detected between the similarities in the sequence and the assignment to phenetic clusters as defined by the numerical taxonomy studies. Limited agreement was also found between similarity of the sequences and DNA-DNA homology values. However, species (> 70% DNA-DNA homology values)-specific diagnostic oligonucleotides generally could be defined, except for Streptomyces baldaccii. Therefore the determination of the 23S rRNA sequence may be of greater value for fingerprinting individual strains than for taxonomic or identification purposes.
Base Composition↗
Enhancing collective and personal self-esteem through differentiation: further exploration of Hinkle & Brown's taxonomy.
The present study investigated hypotheses concerning the relationship between strength of social identification and intergroup differentiation and between personal self-esteem and self-serving bias for groups in the relational quadrants of Hinkle & Brown's taxonomy. Thirty groups each of individualists and collectivists were randomly assigned to either a compatible or an incompatible goal condition. During 10, 20-second trials, subjects worked on the Tarkus Block task in which they built their own tower and a group tower as high as possible. Afterwards, they evaluated their own group, the outgroup, themselves, and another member of the ingroup on attitude and task performance scales. Then they completed a group identification scale and a state self-esteem scale. For collectivists, a significant relationship was found between strength of group identification and intergroup differentiation when personal and group goals were compatible, and between self-esteem and self-serving bias when personal and group goals were incompatible. Further, the correlations for individualists were opposite to those found for collectivists, although only one of the correlations was significant. These unexpected and interesting results qualify and add to the findings from other research which show that the identity-differentiation relationship is usually the strongest for collectivists in a relational intergroup context.
Classification↗
[Two types of depersonalization--reconsideration from a descriptive-phenomenological view point].
The term depersonalization has been vaguely used in clinical contexts and there is confusion over its nosological positioning. Although the syndrome has been assigned a niche of its own in the European psychiatric taxonomy, the American's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III, IV) labeled it under the term Dissociative Disorder. The latter, which does not agree with the classical theory of Janet, seems to have no basis on traditional psychopathology and is not derived from any dissociative theories. In this paper the descriptive characteristics of depersonalization are discussed with regard to the features of "observing self" and the relationship between experiences and selves, according to which the authors distinguish two types of depersonalization: an "excessive-self-reflecting type" and an "absorbed-in-experience type". Whereas the former coinsides with the typical depersonalization neurosis, in which excessive self-reflection plays an important role in reducing the sense of reality, in the latter over-absorption in some situations leads the patient to construct a wall to block out reality. We suggest that in making a distinction between these two types, the psychopathology of depersonalization will be better clarified.
Adult↗
A phylogenetic and biogeographic perspective on the evolution of poeciliid fishes.
Phylogenetic relationships of members of the subfamily Poeciliinae (Cyprinodontiformes) are investigated to test alternate hypotheses of diversification resulting from the assembly of the Central America and the Caribbean from the Cretaceous period onwards. We use 4333 aligned base pairs of mitochondrial DNA and 1549 aligned base pairs of nuclear DNA from 55 samples representing 48 ingroup and seven outgroup species to test this hypothesis. Mitochondrial genes analyzed include those encoding the 12S and 16S ribosomal RNAs; transfer RNAs coding for valine, leucine, isoleucine, glutamine, methionine, tryptophan, alanine, asparagine, cysteine and tyrosine; and complete cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit I and II; nuclear gene analyzed included the third exon of the recombination activation gene 1 (RAG1). Analyses of combined mtDNA and nuclear DNA data sets result in a well-supported phylogenetic hypothesis. This hypothesis is in conflict with the classical taxonomic assignment of genera into tribes and phylogenetic hypotheses based on the taxonomy; however, the molecular hypothesis defines nine clades that are geographically restricted and consistent with the geological evolution of Central America and the Caribbean. Our analyses support multiple colonization events of Middle America followed by a mix of vicariance and dispersal events.
Animals↗
Numerical taxonomic analysis of imperfect yeast species in Candida and Torulopsis shows no basis for generic separation.
A numerical taxonomic analysis was performed on 79 phenotypic characters of 147 imperfect yeast species currently assigned to the genus Candida. The characters used were drawn from two monographs on yeast taxonomy. The analysis revealed 10 clusters of three or more species that were similar at the level of 75% or more, and seven clusters containing only one or two species. None of the 10 major clusters contained exclusively species that were traditionally assigned to the genus Torulopsis, while the 12 Candida species of basidiomycetous affinity fell into three clusters with only one species of ascomycetous affinity included. Statistical determination of the five most important differential characters for each cluster failed to show the property of pseudomycelium/mycelium formation as significant for any cluster. The study provides no evidence to support a distinction between taxa that were formerly divided between the genera Candida and Torulopsis and supports previous proposals that these genera should be fused.
Candida↗
Cell wall composition in relation to the taxonomy of some Actinoplanaceae.
Hydrolytic residues of the cell walls of 48 strains of Actinoplanaceae, previously assigned to 10 species and the four genera, Actinoplanes, Ampullariella, Amorphosporangium, and Pilimelia, were examined by paper chromatography and column chromatography. Comparisons were made for taxonomic purposes between the groupings obtained, by use of chemical characters and the groupings currently recognized morphologically. Most of the species investigated had qualitatively distinct cell wall compositions. Often, however, the cell wall compositions of species in different genera were more similar, in some respects, than were those of species in the same genus. Quantification of the cell wall amino acids and amino sugars substantiated that cross-generic similarities existed. Based on these results and the morphological conclusions reached by other investigators, a single-genus concept is suggested for the Actinoplanaceae examined.
Actinomycetales↗
Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in England and Wales. Neuropathology Group of the Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study (MRC CFAS).
BACKGROUND: We have undertaken a large unselected, community-based neuropathology study in an elderly (70-103 years) UK population in relation to prospectively evaluated dementia status. The study tests the assumption that dementing disorders as defined by current diagnostic protocols underlie this syndrome in the community at large. METHODS: Respondents in the Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study were approached for consent to examine the brain at necropsy. Dementia status was assigned by use of the automated geriatric examination for computer-assisted taxonomy algorithm. Neuropathological features were standardised by use of the protocol of the Consortium to Establish a Registry of Alzheimer's Disease, which assesses the severity and distribution of Alzheimer-type pathology, vascular lesions, and other potential causes of dementia. A statistical model of dementia risk related predominantly to Alzheimer-type and vascular pathology was developed by multivariate logistic regression. FINDINGS: We report on the first 209 individuals who have come to necropsy. The median age at death was 85 years for men, and 86 years for women. Cerebrovascular (78%) and Alzheimer-type (70%) pathology were common. Dementia was present in 100 (48%), of whom 64% had features indicating probable or definite Alzheimer's disease. However, 33% of the 109 non-demented people had equivalent densities of neocortical neuritic plaques. Some degree of neocortical neurofibrillary pathology was found in 61% of demented and 34% of non-demented individuals. Vascular lesions were equally common in both groups, although the proportion with multiple vascular pathology was higher in the demented group (46% vs 33%). INTERPRETATION: Alzheimer-type and vascular pathology were the major pathological correlates of cognitive decline in this elderly sample, as expected, but most patients had mixed disease. There were no clear thresholds of these features that predicted dementia status. The findings therefore challenge conventional dementia diagnostic criteria in this setting. Additional factors must determine whether moderate burdens of cerebral Alzheimer-type pathology and vascular lesions are associated with cognitive failure.
Aged↗
Comparative studies on physiology and taxonomy of obligately purinolytic clostridia.
Eleven strains of obligately purinolytic clostridia have been studied with respect to their assignment to the three type strains of Clostridium acidiurici, C. cylindrosporum, and C. purinolyticum. DNA/DNA-hybridization proved to be the method of choice for differentiation whereas phenotypic characteristics such as spore morphology, substrate spectra, nutritional requirements, product formation, and sensitivity against various antibiotics did not allow unequivocal identification. All strains depended on selenite for growth.
Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
Can we influence medical students' approaches to learning?
Students use three approaches to learning and studying: deep, surface and strategic. These are influenced by the learning environment. In response to the General Medical Council's report 'Tomorrow's Doctors', the second year of the medical course at the University of Edinburgh was changed to promote deep learning, with learning objectives constructed according to the SOLO taxonomy, learning methods such as problem-based learning and constructively aligned written assignments and examinations. The Approaches to Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) was used to evaluate the effect of these changes. Scores were highest for deep approaches and lowest for surface approaches and showed almost no change during the course. There are various possible explanations. The students already scored highly on deep approaches at the beginning of Year 2 and it may be difficult to increase the deep scores further, particularly over the relatively short period of the study. Alternatively, the effect of the changes in learning environment may not be strong enough to change entrenched approaches which have hitherto been successful.
Cohort Studies↗
A numerical taxonomic study of several Cobitis species (Pisces, Cobitidae) based on their cytogenetic features.
Some of the cytogenetical features (known also as chromosomal sets in karyotypes of polyploid forms) of Cobitis species in Poland and in other populations from Russia, the Czech Republic and England were compared using a numerical taxonomy method in order to reveal the relationships between them. The results obtained confirmed that in addition to C. taenia and C. elongatoides, C. tanaitica took part in the origin of polyploids from Poland. The numerical taxonomy method, revealing the relationships between the Cobitis fish species, provided evidence for assigning them into two groups: one containing C. taenia, C. tanaitica and C. melanoleuca with karyotypes dominated by uniarmed chromosomes and the second consisting of C. elongatoides and C. vardarensis with karyotypes dominated by biarmed chromosomes.
Animals↗
Dimensional overlap: cognitive basis for stimulus-response compatibility--a model and taxonomy.
The classic problem of stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility (SRC) is addressed. A cognitive model is proposed that views the stimulus and response sets in S-R ensembles as categories with dimensions that may or may not overlap. If they do overlap, the task may be compatible or incompatible, depending on the assigned S-R mapping. If they do not overlap, the task is noncompatible regardless of the assigned mapping. The overlapping dimensions may be relevant or not. The model provides a systematic account of SRC effects, a taxonomy of simple performance tasks that were hitherto thought to be unrelated, and suggestive parallels between these tasks and the experimental paradigms that have traditionally been used to study attentional, controlled, and automatic processes.
Arousal↗