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PubMed2006

Hazard identification, dose-response and environmental characteristics of stachybotryotoxins and other health-related products from Stachybotrys.

An extensive growth of Stachybotrys in water-damaged buildings is of great public health concern. It is inconclusive whether Stachybotrys is responsible for the reported health effects on the occupants in these contaminated environments. However, based on the veterinary, occupational and laboratory toxicity studies, it is reasonable to project that Stachybotrys can cause adverse health responses once the toxic level of the corresponding agents reached the target systems. In order to assess the risk to occupants in contaminated buildings, it is essential to outline and collect information for risk assessment. This review paper presents the current information in the format of hazard identification, dose-response and environmental characteristics and aims to discuss existing information with researchers and risk assessors and help to conduct risk characterization under different indoor conditions.

Construction Materials↗
PubMed2005

Detection of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins in the indoor environment.

The existence of airborne mycotoxins in mold-contaminated buildings has long been hypothesized to be a potential occupant health risk. However, little work has been done to demonstrate the presence of these compounds in such environments. The presence of airborne macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins in indoor environments with known Stachybotrys chartarum contamination was therefore investigated. In seven buildings, air was collected using a high-volume liquid impaction bioaerosol sampler (SpinCon PAS 450-10) under static or disturbed conditions. An additional building was sampled using an Andersen GPS-1 PUF sampler modified to separate and collect particulates smaller than conidia. Four control buildings (i.e., no detectable S. chartarum growth or history of water damage) and outdoor air were also tested. Samples were analyzed using a macrocyclic trichothecene-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). ELISA specificity was tested using phosphate-buffered saline extracts of the fungal genera Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Memnoniella, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Trichoderma, five Stachybotrys strains, and the indoor air allergens Can f 1, Der p 1, and Fel d 1. For test buildings, the results showed that detectable toxin concentrations increased with the sampling time and short periods of air disturbance. Trichothecene values ranged from <10 to >1,300 pg/m3 of sampled air. The control environments demonstrated statistically significantly (P < 0.001) lower levels of airborne trichothecenes. ELISA specificity experiments demonstrated a high specificity for the trichothecene-producing strain of S. chartarum. Our data indicate that airborne macrocyclic trichothecenes can exist in Stachybotrys-contaminated buildings, and this should be taken into consideration in future indoor air quality investigations.

Air Microbiology↗
PubMed1999

Isolation of Stachybotrys from the lung of a child with pulmonary hemosiderosis.

Recently, Stachybotrys atra, a toxigenic fungus, has been implicated as a potential cause of pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis in infants living in water-damaged homes. Although epidemiologic evidence supports this association, neither the organism nor its toxic products has ever been recovered from humans. We report the first case in which Stachybotrys was isolated from the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of a child with pulmonary hemorrhage. Stachybotrys was also recovered from his water-damaged home. The patient recovered completely after his immediate removal from the environment and subsequent cleaning of his home. This case provides further evidence that this fungus is capable of causing pulmonary hemorrhage in children.

Air Microbiology↗
PubMed1998

Characterization of an endo-1,3-beta-D-glucanase produced during the interaction between the mycoparasite Stachybotrys elegans and its host Rhizoctonia solani.

The mycoparasite Stachybotrys elegans produces, in addition to a previously purified 94-kDa 1,3-beta-glucanase, at least three extracellular 1,3-beta-glucanases (75, 110, and 180 kDa) when grown on purified cell wall of Rhizoctonia solani. We purified to homogeneity an endo-1,3-beta-glucanase of 75 kDa which possesses a low K(m) value of 20 micrograms laminarin.mL-1 and is most active at pH 5.0 and 40 degrees C. Polyclonal antibodies raised against both the 75- and 94-kDa 1,3-beta-glucanases indicate that they are immunologically related but do not cross-react with the 110- and 180-kDa glucanases. Exposure of growing hyphal tips of R. solani to the pure 75-kDa 1,3-beta-glucanase caused them to swell and lyse. A transient increase of the 75-kDa 1,3-beta-glucanase with a concomitant decrease of the 94-kDa 1,3-beta-glucanase and the appearance of a 20-kDa protein were observed at the point of interaction between R. solani and Stachybotrys elegans on plates. Evidence suggesting a precursor-product relationship between the two 1,3-beta-glucanases is provided. Our results indicate that the 75-kDa 1,3-beta-glucanase may be involved in Stachybotrys elegans mycoparasitism.

Antibodies, Fungal↗
PubMed2001

Specific detection of Stachybotrys chartarum in pure culture using quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

Research was conducted with laboratory cultures to establish a protocol for the rapid detection and quantitation of the toxigenic fungus Stachybotrys chartarum by means of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Sequences for the 18 S rRNA gene of S. chartarum were obtained from GenBank and compared against all other available sequences on-line with the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST). Two sets of TaqMan primers and one fluorescently labelled probe were designed and tested for selectivity, specificity and sensitivity of detection. A fluorogenic nuclease assay in conjunction with a sequence detector were used for the amplification and quantitation of S. chartarum. The primers designed amplified all S. chartarum isolates tested and did not amplify DNA extracted from other Stachybotrys species or 15 other fungal genera. The primer set selected had a sensitivity of <23 template copies. Many S. chartarum samples were initially negative after PCR amplification. Incorporation of an internal positive control in the PCR reaction demonstrated the presence of inhibitors in these samples. PCR inhibitors were removed by dilution or further purification of the DNA samples. The results of this research report on a quantitative PCR (QPCR) method for detection and quantitation of S. chartarum and demonstrate the presence of PCR inhibitors in some S. chartarum isolates.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1999

Sanitation of wallboard colonized with Stachybotrys chartarum.

Sections (8 cm2) of unused, nonsterile gypsum wallboard (dry wall) were inoculated with varying densities (10(4) to approximately 10(8)/ml) of conidia from 14- to 21-day cultures of Stachybotrys chartarum grown on cellulose agar. The sections were permitted to air dry and were placed into vessels with 86% or 92% RH and incubated at 22-25 degrees C for up to 12 weeks. The moisture content of the dryboard increased from near 10% to over 35%. Selected sections with confluent surface growth, mainly of S. chartarum, were obtained within 3 weeks. Sections were cleaned with a quaternary or quaternary and chlorine dioxide or a concentrated oxygen-saline solution and treated, in some cases, with a preservative system and returned to humidity vessels. Reemergence of S. chartarum from inoculated and treated surfaces occurred within 5 weeks only with sections treated with the quaternary alone. Other fungi, mostly species of Aspergillus, Chaetomium and Penicillium, slowly colonized (between 9-12 weeks) at least some areas of most treated surfaces and most uninoculated control surfaces. Stachybotrys chartarum was also found on several sections of uninoculated controls. Sections treated with a quaternary/acrylic and placed in a dynamic challenging chamber remained visually free of colonized fungi for over 90 days. These studies indicate that control samples of uninstalled wallboard, available from local distributors, can contain a baseline bioburden, including S. chartarum, that will colonize surfaces under high humidity conditions. Sanitation and preservation treatment of the wallboard can markedly delay regrowth of these fungi, particularly of S. chartarum.

Chlorine Compounds↗
PubMed2006

The development of species-specific immunodiagnostics for Stachybotrys chartarum: the role of cross-reactivity.

Mold contamination and exposure to fungi in indoor environments has been associated with various adverse health effects but little is known about the significance of individual fungal species in the initiation or exacerbation of such effects. Using Stachybotrys chartarum as a model fungus we sought to demonstrate that monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) can provide species-specific diagnostic reagents and also be used to investigate immunological cross-reactivity patterns among fungi. Mice were immunized with S. chartarum spore walls and monoclonal antibodies were screened against 60 fungal species and 24 different isolates of S. chartarum using an indirect ELISA. One species-specific mAb (IgG(1)) reacted only with spore preparations but not mycelium of S. chartarum or propagules of any other fungus. Five cross-reactive mAbs (IgM) documented extensive cross-reactivity among nine related Stachybotrys species and several non-related genera including several species of Cladosporium, Memnoniella, Myrothecium and Trichoderma. We also found that the ELISA reactivity for cross-reactive antigens and different isolates of S. chartarum differed considerably for normalized total amounts of mycelial antigen. We demonstrate that mAbs and immunoassays have the potential to detect S. chartarum species-specifically. The observed reactivity patterns with cross-reactive mAbs suggest that several fungi may share common antigens and that the majority of antigens are expressed by spores and mycelia. The observed cross-reactivity patterns need to be considered for accurate interpretations of environmental and serological analyses.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

A Stachybotrys chartarum isolate from soybean.

As part of our effort to investigate fungi associated with soybean roots, Stachybotrys chartarum was isolated from soybean root lesions. Since this fungus has not been reported to cause a disease of soybean, the objectives were to identify and characterize this fungus using biological, chemical, and molecular approaches. Fungal morphology was examined using light and environmental scanning electron microscopy. Phialides bearing conidia arose from determinate, macronematous, dark olivaceous conidiophores. The phialides were obovate or ellipsoidal in whorls. Conidia were unicellular, round or ellipsoidal, 5-13 x 4-7 microm, initially hyaline with smooth walls then dark brown to black and rough-walled when mature. Radial growth of the fungus on cornmeal, oatmeal and potato dextrose agar was 38, 47, and 33 mm in diam., respectively, after 10 days at 25 degrees C. Pathogenicity was performed using sorghum grain colonized by S. chartarum placed below sown soybean seeds in a soil: sand (1:1) steam-pasteurized mix. Three weeks after inoculation, root lesions ranged from 7 to 25 mm long. The fungus was reisolated from soybean root lesions and was reidentified as S. chartarum. Biochemical analysis indicated that this soybean isolate produced satratoxins G and H along with roridin L-2, as well as the spircyclic lactones and lactams in rice culture. PCR using a S. chartarum-specific primer StacR3 and IT51 amplified a 198-bp DNA fragment from the total genomic DNA. The DNA sequence of the ITS region was 100% identical to the S. chartarum strain ATCC 9182, one nucleotide mismatch with S. chartarum strain UAMH 7900, and differed from all published sequences of 12 other species of Stachybotrys and 2 species of Memnoniella in GenBank with genetic divergence ranging from 5.26 to 9.98%. This molecular evidence further supports the identification of S. chartarum isolated from soybean root lesions.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
PubMed2002

Metabolite profiles of Stachybotrys isolates from water-damaged buildings and their induction of inflammatory mediators and cytotoxicity in macrophages.

The metabolite profiles of 20 Stachybotrys spp. isolates from Finnish water-damaged buildings were compared with their biological activities. Effects of purified compounds on cytotoxicity and production of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, IL-6 and TNFalpha in murine RAW264.7 macrophage cells were studied. The 11 isolates belonging to the satratoxin-producing chemotype were highly cytotoxic to the macrophages. The isolates inducing inflammatory mediators all belonged to the atranone-producing chemotype, but pure atranones B, and D did not elicit a response in the bioassay. Altogether, cytotoxicity of Stachybotrys sp. isolates appear to be related to satratoxin production whereas the specific component inducing inflammatory responses in atranone-producing isolates remains obscure.

Air Microbiology↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Quantification of Stachybotrys chartarum conidia in indoor dust using real time, fluorescent probe-based detection of PCR products.

Analyses of fungal spores or conidia in indoor dust samples can be useful for determining the contamination status of building interiors and in signaling instances where potentially harmful exposures of building occupants to these organisms may exist. A recently developed method for the quantification of Stachybotrys chartarum conidia, using real-time, fluorescence probe--based detection of PCR products (TaqMan system) was employed to analyze indoor dust samples for this toxigenic fungal species. Dust samples ofup to 10 mg were found to be amenable to DNA extraction and analysis. Quantitative estimates of S. chartarum conidia in composite dust samples, containing a four-log range of these cells, were within 25 -- 104% of the expected quantities in 95% of analyses performed by the method. Calibrator samples containing known numbers of S. chartarum conidia were used as standards for quantification. Conidia of an arbitrarily selected strain of Geotrichum candidum were added in equal numbers to both dust and calibrator samples before DNA extraction. Partial corrections for reductions in overall DNA yields from the dust samples compared to the calibrator samples were obtained by comparative analyses of rDNA sequence yields from these reference conidia in the two types of samples. Dust samples from two contaminated homes were determined to contain greater than 10(3) S. chartarum conidia per milligram in collection areas near the sites of contamination and greater than 10(2) conidia per milligram in several areas removed from these sites in analyses performed by the method. These measurements were within the predicted range of agreement with results obtained by direct microscopic enumeration of presumptive Stachybotrys conidia in the same samples.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed2002

Microanatomical changes in alveolar type II cells in juvenile mice intratracheally exposed to Stachybotrys chartarum spores and toxin.

Stachybotrys chartarum is an important environmental fungus. We have shown recently that alveolar type II cells are sensitive to exposure to Stachybotrys chartarum spores and to the trichothecene, isosatratoxin-F, both in vitro and in vivo, in a juvenile mouse model. This sensitivity is manifest as significant changes in the composition and normal metabolic processing of pulmonary surfactant. This study evaluated the effects of a single intratracheal exposure of S. chartarum spores and toxin on ultrastructure and dimensions of alveolar type II cells from juvenile mice. This was to determine whether there are concurrent morphological and dimensional changes in the alveolar type II cell that reflect the metabolic alterations in pulmonary surfactant that we observed in the treated mice. Marked ultrastructural changes were associated with alveolar type II cells in both S. chartarum and isosatratoxin-F treated animals compared to untreated, saline, and Cladosporium cladosporioides spore treated animals. These ultrastructural changes included condensed mitochondria with separated cristae, scattered chromatin and poorly defined nucleolus, cytoplasmic rarefaction, and distended lamellar bodies with irregularly arranged lamellae. Point count stereological analysis revealed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in lamellar body volume density in S. chartarum and isosatratoxin-treated animals after 48 h exposure. Mitochondria volume density was significantly lower in the isosatratoxin-F (48 h exposure) and S. chartarum treated (24 and 48 h exposure) animals compared to those in the other treatment groups. These results reveal that exposure to S. chartarum spores and toxin elicit cellular responses in vivo differently from those associated with exposure to spores of a nontoxigenic mold species. They also indicate that accumulation of newly secreted pulmonary surfactant in the alveolar space of S. chartarum and isosatratoxin-F treated animals might be a consequence of cellular trauma resulting in lamellar body volume density changes leading to increased release of pulmonary surfactant into the alveolar space.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Stachybotrys.

Stachybotrys is a toxin-producing fungus that grows indoors when both water and cellulose are available. Epidemiologic evidence has demonstrated an association between acute pulmonary hemorrhage in infants and exposure to Stachybotrys and other fungi in water-damaged home environments. In recent years, advances in understanding of this association have occurred in six major areas: animal models, biologic mechanism of lung injury, dose-response relationship, isolation from diseased patients, detection methods, and intervention. The association demonstrates strength, consistency, coherence, and specificity. While additional data are gathered, a preventive approach to reducing the exposure of infants with pulmonary hemorrhage is suggested.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Building-associated pulmonary disease from exposure to Stachybotrys chartarum and Aspergillus versicolor.

The authors present an outbreak of disease associated with exposure to Stachybotrys chartarum and Aspergillus species. A courthouse and two associated office buildings had generated discomfort among employees for two years since initial occupancy. Multiple interventions had been unsuccessful An initial evaluation of 14 individuals identified three with potential asthma and three with symptoms consistent with interstitial lung disease. A clinical screening protocol to identify individuals who should be removed from work identified three likely and seven possible cases of building-related asthma. Detailed environmental and engineering assessments of the building identified major problems in mechanical system design, building construction, and operational strategies leading to excess moisture and elevated relative humidities. Moisture-damaged interior surfaces in both buildings were contaminated with S. chartarum, A. versicolor, and Penicillium species. Aspergillus species, especially A. versicolor, at concentrations of 10(1) to 10(4)/m3 dominated the indoor air under normal operating conditions. Bulk samples also revealed large quantities of Stachybotrys. A questionnaire survey of the three case and two control buildings documented between three- and 15-fold increases in symptoms. A nested case-control study suggested emphysematous-like disease in individuals meeting questionnaire definitions for cases. Replication of analysis strategies used in similar previous investigations suggested an association between worsening symptoms and decreased diffusing capacity of the lung. Performance on neuropsychological measures was similar for both cases and controls, although workers with symptoms reported increased levels of current but not past psychiatric symptomatology. Chemical analyses demonstrated the presence of satratoxins G and H. Cytotoxic laboratory analyses demonstrated the presence of agents with biological effectiveness in bulk materials. No association was seen between IgE or IgG antibodies and the presence of disease. This outbreak represents a likely human response to inhaled fungal toxins in indoor environments. Moisture indoors represents a public health issue currently inadequately addressed by building, health, or housing codes.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Wall relative humidity: a simple and reliable index for predicting Stachybotrys chartarum infestation in dwellings.

UNLABELLED: Because the indoor mold Stachybotrys chartarum has been considered as potentially responsible for serious health effects, its identification in dwellings with water damages is of utmost importance. As such dwellings are many, it would be of great value to have a simple and reliable index for predicting its presence. The aim of the study was to compare measurements of wall relative humidity (RH) to mold identification in 458 samples from 100 dwellings. Mold identification was performed by direct microscopic examination of a sample collected on the wall by the gummed paper technique. Mean (+/- s.d.) wall RH (%) was much higher (97.0 +/- 6.1) on the 30 samples where S. chartarum was identified compared with the 291 samples where other molds were identified (41.8 +/- 36.9) and to the 137 samples where no molds were identified (38.9 +/- 34.8). There was no straightforward relationship between wall and room RH. In conclusion, this study clearly demonstrate that the simple measurement of wall RH can be used as a reliable index for discarding and suspecting S. chartarum infestation in dwellings. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: This paper suggests that very high relative humidity (RH) within walls is a strong risk factor for their infestation with the 'toxic mold' Stachybotrys chartarum. Besides, data from the literature demonstrate that other molds are able to produce mycotoxins when RH is very high. Thus, measurement of wall RH, which is easy to perform and very cheap, could be used as a screening tool to select those dwellings where mold identification should be performed and remediation should be promptly carried out.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed1976

Identification of mycotoxins produced by species of Fusarium and Stachybotrys obtained from Eastern Europe.

Isolates of Fusarium and Stachybotrys spp. and crude extracts from these fungi were obtained from Hungary and the U.S.S.R. and used for the evaluation of the mycotoxins they produced. The cultures were grown on millet and oats and extracted in Budapest, Hungary (Veterinary Medical Research Institute) and chemically analyzed at the University of Minnesota using thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the rat skin bioassay. Zearalenone was found in most of the Fusarium cultures, T-2 toxin, neosolaniol, T-2 tetraol, and HT-2 toxin were found in extracts of Fusarium poae and F. sporotrichioies. A special effort was made to isolate the steroid-like toxins reported in the early Russian literature as sporofusarin and poaefusarin. None of the extracts from the Fusarium species yielded poaefusarin or sporofusarin when analyzed by our chemical methods or by those of L.E. Olifson, S.M. Kenina, and V.L. Kartashova, 1972. We therefore accounted for the toxicity of the Fusarium extracts as due to the 12,13,epoxytrichothecenes. One culture of Stachybotrys alternans yielded a macrocyclic ester of 12,13-epoxytrichothecene which, upon hydrolysis, yielded verrucarol; a steroid-like molecule (SB-3) was also isolated. The former had skin-irritant activity but SB-3 did not; the latter exhibited cardiac activity on the heart of the cockroach.

Fusarium↗
PubMed1985

Macrocyclic trichothecene toxins produced by Stachybotrys atra strains isolated in Middle Europe.

A total of 17 strains of Stachybotrys atra isolated in Hungary and Czechoslovakia were cultured on Sabouraud agar, and the toxins produced by them were chemically analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography, and mass spectroscopy. Furthermore, brine shrimp (Artemia salina) bioassay was used for the determination of toxicity of the compounds examined. Macrocyclic trichothecenes (satratoxins H and G, roridin E, and verrucarin J as well as two other unidentified macrocyclic trichothecenes) were found in all of the cultures tested. The identities of satratoxins H and G, roridin E, and verrucarin J were qualitatively determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography and gas-liquid chromatography. The ratio of satratoxins H and G and roridin E was found to be similar in each of the strains tested, but the amount of verrucarin J found was different in each of them. One of the unidentified macrocyclic trichothecenes was equivalent to the compound isolated by Harrach et al. (Harrach et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 41:1428-1433, 1981). The other one proved to be a newly isolated macrocyclic trichothecene toxin. Stachybotryotoxicosis, one of the oldest mycotoxicoses known, and a serious problem in Middle Europe (Gy. Danko, Magy. Allatorv. Lapja 31:226-232, 1976), is believed to be caused by macrocyclic trichothecene toxins produced by Stachybotrys atra (R. M. Eppley, in Rodricks et al., ed., Mycotoxins in Human and Animal Health, p. 285-293, 1977). Forty years ago, the death of animals in the Soviet Union was associated with this fungus (C. U. Ruhliada, in Proceedings of the All-Union Sci. and Tech. Conf., p. 47-51, 1980).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Detection of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins on particulates smaller than conidia.

Highly respirable particles (diameter, <1 microm) constitute the majority of particulate matter found in indoor air. It is hypothesized that these particles serve as carriers for toxic compounds, specifically the compounds produced by molds in water-damaged buildings. The presence of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum trichothecene mycotoxins on particles smaller than conidia (e.g., fungal fragments) was therefore investigated. Cellulose ceiling tiles with confluent Stachybotrys growth were placed in gas-drying containers through which filtered air was passed. Exiting particulates were collected by using a series of polycarbonate membrane filters with decreasing pore sizes. Scanning electron microscopy was employed to determine the presence of conidia on the filters. A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) specific for macrocyclic trichothecenes was used to analyze filter extracts. Cross-reactivity to various mycotoxins was examined to confirm the specificity. Statistically significant (P < 0.05) ELISA binding was observed primarily for macrocyclic trichothecenes at concentrations of 50 and 5 ng/ml and 500 pg/ml (58.4 to 83.5% inhibition). Of the remaining toxins tested, only verrucarol and diacetylverrucarol (nonmacrocyclic trichothecenes) demonstrated significant binding (18.2 and 51.7% inhibition, respectively) and then only at high concentrations. The results showed that extracts from conidium-free filters demonstrated statistically significant (P < 0.05) antibody binding that increased with sampling time (38.4 to 71.9% inhibition, representing a range of 0.5 to 4.0 ng/ml). High-performance liquid chromatography analysis suggested the presence of satratoxin H in conidium-free filter extracts. These data show that S. chartarum trichothecene mycotoxins can become airborne in association with intact conidia or smaller particles. These findings may have important implications for indoor air quality assessment.

Air Microbiology↗
PubMed2006

Strain differences influence murine pulmonary responses to Stachybotrys chartarum.

When the fungus Stachybotrys chartarum is inhaled, its mycotoxins may cause lung injury and inflammation. The severity of human responses to S. chartarum in both occupational and home settings varies widely. To explore these differences, we intratracheally instilled C3H/HeJ, BALB/c, and C57BL/6J mice with S. chartarum spores suspended in saline. One day later, the mice were humanely killed, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed, and biochemical and cellular indicators of lung injury and inflammation were measured. BALB/c mice showed the highest myeloperoxidase activity, albumin and hemoglobin levels, and neutrophil numbers in their BAL among the three strains. BALB/c was the only strain to show significant increases in keratinocyte-derived cytokine (KC), monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, MCP-3, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha, MIP-1beta, MIP-1gamma, MIP-2, RANTES, IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, IL-3, IL-6, IL-18, leukemia inhibitory factor, macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and TNF-alpha. A model of allergen-induced airway inflammation was examined to assess whether underlying allergic inflammation might contribute to increased susceptibility to S. chartarum-induced pulmonary inflammation and injury. Surprisingly, in BALB/c mice, ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation produced a protective effect against some S. chartarum-induced pulmonary responses. This is the first report of mammalian strain differences affecting responses to S. chartarum. These responses differ from those reported for LPS and other fungi. Analogous underlying genetic differences may contribute to the wide range of sensitivity to Stachybotrys among humans.

Animals↗