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PubMed2006

Prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi genospecies in Ixodes ricinus ticks from Lublin region (eastern Poland).

The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence rate of 3 Borrelia burgdorferi genospecies in Ixodes ricinus ticks collected from wooded areas of the Lublin region (eastern Poland). A group of 1,813 I. ricinus ticks from 6 districts were examined for the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (B.b.s.l.) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Another group of 438 I. ricinus ticks collected from 4 districts were examined for the presence of B.b.s.l. by culture on BSKH liquid medium confirmed by PCR, and for the presence of Borrelia spp. by dark field microscopy (DFM). Borrelia burgdorferi genospecies (Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii) were determined by nested-PCR in 113 ticks lysates showing presence of B.b.s.l. (in PCR or in culture and PCR). 5.4 % of I. ricinus ticks examined by PCR showed the presence of B.b.s.l. DNA. The infection rate was highest in females (12.1 %), lower in males (6.0 %) and the lowest in nymphs (1.7 %) (p < 0.001). The minimum infection rate of I. ricinus ticks with B.b.s.l. determined by culture was 3.4 %, whereas the minimum infection rate of ticks with motile spirochetes morphologically resembling Borrelia spp., determined by DFM, amounted to 11.2 %. The presence of all 3 Borrelia burgdorferi genospecies under investigation was found in ticks collected from 5 out of 6 examined districts. In 81.4 % of infected ticks only single infection with 1 genospecies was observed, while coinfections with 2 or 3 genospecies were detected respectively in 16.8 % and 1.8 % of infected ticks. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto was the dominant genospecies in all examined tick stages and districts, both in single infections and in coinfections, and found in a total of 62.8 % of I. ricinus ticks infected with B.b.s.l. Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii were less frequent and observed in respectively 39.8 % and 17.8 % of infected ticks.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Studies on the antitumor lectins isolated from the seeds of Ricinus communis (castor bean).

Three toxic proteins and one agglutinin were purified from the seeds of Ricinus communis by a simple and fast method using Sepharose 4-B affinity chromatography followed by Sephadex G-100 gel filtration. The weakly adsorbed ricins A and B were retarded and eluted with the buffer from the affinity chromatographic column, while ricin C and ricinus agglutinin had to be eluted with 0.1 M galactose. The molecular weights of ricins A, B, and C were about 62,000 and that of ricinus agglutinin was 120,000, estimated by amino acid compositions and SDS gel electrophoresis. They all possessed two non-identical subunits: A and B chains linked by one disulfide bond. Their LD50 values were 4, 28, 14 and 112 micrograms per kg body weight of mice for ricins A, B and C and ricinus agglutinin, respectively. The amino acid compositions of the three toxins and their A and B subunits were very similar, but not identical, while ricinus agglutinin showed a different composition. Ricin A is a newly isolated lectin which has a strong inhibitory effect on the growth of tumor cells. By using cell cultures, it was demonstrated that the tumor cells were more sensitive to lectin than non-transformed cells, and that this could be caused by the higher binding affinity of lectin to tumor cells than to non-transformed cells.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1975

Interactions between ricinus agglutinin and human IgM and IgG.

Ricinus agglutinin, purified until homogeneous, precipitates serum glycoproteins with terminal nonreducing galactose residues including IgM and IgG. Almost 100% of IgM reacted with anti-IgM and ricinus agglutinin in quantitative precipitin tests. In similar tests, almost 100% of polyclonal IgG was precipitated by excess anti-IgG, whereas only about 10% reacted with ricinus agglutinin. In quantitative precipitin analyses and affinity chromatography experiments with insolubilized ricinus agglutinin and isolated monoclonal IgG1 and IgG3 proteins, only IgG3 proteins reacted with ricinus agglutinin.

Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic↗
PubMed1994

Ultrastructural alterations induced in quail ciliary neurons by postganglionic nerve crush and by Ricinus toxin administration, separately and in combination.

The response to postganglionic nerve crush and Ricinus toxin administration by the ciliary neurons of the quail ciliary ganglion was investigated at the ultrastructural level. The toxin was either applied at the crush site on the postganglionic nerves or injected into the anterior eye chamber without any other operative intervention. Crush of postganglionic nerves without toxin administration and saline injection into the anterior eye chamber served as controls for the two toxin administration procedures. Postganglionic nerve crush caused a distinct chromatolytic reaction, accompanied by massive detachment of the preganglionic axon terminals from the ciliary neurons and loss of most of the synapses, both chemical and electrical. This process does not induce cell death and is reversible. Saline injection in the anterior eye chamber caused a moderate retrograde reaction in some of the ciliary neurons, presumably as a consequence of paracentesis. The changes consisted mainly of an increase of perikaryal neurofilaments with, at most, a minor detachment of the preganglionic boutons from a small portion of the cell body at the nuclear pole. Ricinus toxin administration induced neuronal degeneration following a pattern common to both delivery modes. The degenerative process consisted of disruption and detachment of polyribosomes from the rough endoplasmic reticulum, an increase of smooth cisterns and tubules, a dramatic increase of neurofilament bundles, compartmentalization of the cytoplasmic organelles and, finally, karyorrhexis and cell lysis. The final stages of Ricinus toxin degeneration involve a progressive accumulation of extracellular flocculo-filamentous material and cell lysis. After administration of Ricinus toxin to the crush site, ricin-affected neurons showed withdrawal of the preganglionic boutons from a portion of the ciliary neuron, especially at the nuclear pole. After Ricinus toxin injection into the anterior eye chamber, however, the bouton shell surrounding the affected ciliary neurons remained intact in the early stages of degeneration. Detachment of the preganglionic terminals and disruption of the cell junctions, therefore, is the consequence of nerve crush and not of the toxin itself. This study demonstrated that quail ciliary neurons are a suitable model for experimental neuropathology and neurotoxicology.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Evidence for flavivirus(es) outside of the distribution area for Ixodes ricinus in Norway.

Small rodent (vole) sera were collected from three different locations in Norway. One of these was within the distribution area for Ixodes ricinus, and a tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus strain had been isolated from ticks collected there (Traavik & Mehl, 1977). The two other locations were outside the I. ricinus area, one in southern Norway, the other at nearly 70 degrees N. The sera were tested for TBE antibodies by hemagglutination inhibition (HI), hemolysis-in-gel (HIG) and complement fixation (CFT). All sera were also tested for HI antibodies to Uukuniemi (UUK) virus, and some positive TBE HI reactions were verified by separation of immunoglobulins and serum lipoproteins in NaBr gradients. Animals containing TBE virus antibodies reacting in all three serological tests and animals with UUK HI antibodies were detected only from the location within the I. ricinus area. From the two locations outside the I. ricinus area we found animals which had antibodies reacting with TBE virus in HI and HIG, but not in CFT. Antibodies to UUK were not detected. The results indicate that flavivirus(es) related to, but not identical with TBE viruses are transmitted by other vectors than I. ricinus in parts of Norway.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Investigations on the mode and dynamics of transmission and infectivity of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia afzelii in Ixodes ricinus ticks.

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (sl), the agent of Lyme disease, is transmitted to the host during the blood meal of Ixodes ticks. In most unfed ticks, spirochetes are present in the midgut and migrate during blood feeding to the salivary glands, from which they are transmitted to the host via saliva. In the present study, the efficiency of Ixodes ricinus ticks to transmit B. afzelii and B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (ss) and their infectivity for mice were examined in relation to the duration of the blood meal. In addition, we investigated whether these two Borrelia species can penetrate intact skin. Three modes of infection of mice were studied: tick-bite infection, inoculation of tick homogenates, and transcutaneous infection by topical application of tick homogenates on mouse skin. Transmission of B. burgdorferi sl from I. ricinus nymphs to mouse increased with duration of tick attachment. B. afzelii-infected ticks start to transmit infection earlier (< or = 48 h) than B. burgdorferi ss-infected ticks. As previously shown for B. burgdorferi ss in Ixodes scapularis, B. burgdorferi ss and B. afzelii in unfed I. ricinus were noninfectious for mice when tick homogenates were inoculated. However, the inoculation of homogenates of ticks fed for 24 h readily produced infection in mice. Therefore, B. burgdorferi ss and B. afzelii spirochetes are potentially infectious in the tick before natural transmission can occur. None of the mice (n = 33) became infected by transcutaneous transmission when tick homogenates were applied on mouse skin, showing that B. burgdorferi ss and B. afzelii are unable to penetrate intact skin, in contrast to relapsing fever spirochetes. This study also shows that B. afzelii is transmitted by I. ricinus to the host earlier than B. burgdorferi ss and that I. ricinus seems to be a more efficient vector of B. afzelii than B. burgdorferi ss.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2003

First isolation of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato from Ixodes ricinus ticks in Morocco.

To determine the infection rate of Ixodes ricinus (I. ricinus) ticks with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (B. burgdorferi sl) and to assess the frequency of the individual Borrelia species in this tick species, a total of 295 I. ricinus were collected in Taza region (Northeast of Morocco), from January to June 2002. The presence of B. burgdorferi sl was determined by direct fluorescence antibody assay (DFA) and by PCR after culture. B. burgdorferi sl isolates were identified at the species level by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of amplified products. The mean rate of I. ricinus infection with B. burgdorferi sl was 47.8%. Isolation attempts in BSK II medium resulted in 26 pure isolates. However, PCR performed on culture medium allowed to identify 82 Borrelia DNAs. B. lusitaniae has been identified from 76 out of 82 infected I. ricinus ticks (92.7%). Three ticks were infected by B. burgdorferi ss, and three other ticks were infected by B. garinii. This is the first report of the presence of B. burgdorferi sl in Morocco and more specifically of B. burgdorferi ss in North Africa.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Subadult Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) on rodents in Berlin, West Germany.

To identify hosts that may serve as reservoirs for the agent of Lyme disease in Central Europe, we determined whether Ixodes ricinus L. feed most frequently on certain rodents and whether the abundance of these hosts corresponds to the season of feeding activity of the tick in four sites in Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. In addition, we correlated abundance of I. ricinus with that of particular rodent hosts. Two small rodents were more abundant than any others; a mouse, Apodemus flavicollis, predominated in a wooded site and a vole, Clethrionomys glareolus, in three brush- or grass-covered sites. The tick was most abundant in the mouse-infested site. Although A. flavicollis comprised only about a third of rodents collected, nearly 60% of all such rodent parasitizing I. ricinus fed on this mouse. These ticks were more abundant on mice than voles in each of the study sites and throughout the year, and more larvae fed on these rodents than did nymphs. Although larval as well as nymphal I. ricinus are most abundant during midsummer, they feed on rodents from April through October. Taken together, these observations suggest A. flavicollis as a potentially important reservoir host for I. ricinus-borne infections.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. from mammal reservoirs to the primary vector of Lyme borreliosis, Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae), in Sweden.

Factors regulating prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Johnson, Schmid, Hyde, Steigerwalt & Brenner in Ixodes ricinus (L.) were examined during 1991-1992 at Bogesund, near Stockholm in south-central Sweden. Nine species of small and medium-sized mammals (Sorex araneus L., S. minutus L., Neomys fodiens Pennant, Clethrionomys glareolus [Schreber], Microtus agrestis [L.], Apodemus sylvaticus [L.], A. flavicollis [Melchior], Lepus europaeus Pallas, L. timidus L.) were found to infect feeding tick larvae with B. burgdorferi s.l., whereas two species of large mammals (Capreolus capreolus L., Alces alces L.) failed to infect feeding tick larvae with this spirochete. The most important mammalian reservoirs at the study locality were S. araneus and rodents, accounting for 91% of all I. ricinus larvae infected. In view of the great number of potentially effective reservoirs for B. burgdorferi s.l. in Sweden, control of Lyme disease by reduction of abundance of reservoir hosts will be difficult to achieve. We also found that infectivity of a rodent species is related to the number of infesting, potentially infective nymphal I. ricinus. Insectivores and rodents were the most important hosts of larval I. ricinus, whereas most nymphal ticks fed on hares and cervids. Adult I. ricinus were frequently found on all species of hares and cervids examined but never on insectivores and rodents. No single species seemed to be of paramount importance as a source of blood for female ticks. Therefore, control of Lyme disease by reduction of abundance of mammal hosts available for female tick engorgement will probably require massive reductions of numbers of both C. capreolus and L. timidus.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Tick infection rates with Borrelia: Ixodes ricinus versus Haemaphysalis concinna and Dermacentor reticulatus in two locations in eastern Germany.

Unfed nymphal Ixodes ricinus, Haemaphysalis concinna, and adult Dermacentor reticulatus were collected in two locations of Saxony in July and September 1991 by flagging. In July, the abundance of nymphal I. ricinus was about 2-3 times higher than that of nymphal H. concinna, a time of the year when nymphs of both species are reported to have a seasonal peak of activity. No D. reticulatus were flagged concurrently. In September, host-seeking activity of nymphal I. ricinus was again quite high as was that of adult D. reticulatus but only low numbers of nymphal H. concinna were collected. The flagged ticks were individually examined for Borrelia by an indirect immunofluorescence assay (I. ricinus: n = 414; H. concinna: n = 96; D. reticulatus: n = 116). The prevalence of Borrelia (probably B. burgdorferi) in I. ricinus varied from 12.1% to 21.0%. No borreliae were found in H. concinna. Of the examined D. reticulatus from one site (n = 97) 11.3% contained either B. burgdorferi or a related Borrelia. This may be the first finding of Borrelia in an Eurasian Dermacentor species.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Clethrionomys glareolus, but not Apodemus flavicollis, acquires resistance to Ixodes ricinus L., the main European vector of Borrelia burgdorferi.

The European rodents Clethrionomys glareolus (bank vole) and Apodemus flavicollis (yellow-necked-mouse) are important hosts of the tick species Ixodes ricinus, the main European vector of Borrelia burgdorferi. We have addressed the question whether or not these tick hosts develop resistance to I. ricinus larvae. C. glareolus and A. flavicollis were exposed to 40 I. ricinus larvae for five consecutive times at two week intervals. Resistance was tested by the following parameters: percentage of ticks fully engorged, time of attachment, engorgement index, percentage of recovered ticks and proportion of larvae moulting to nymphs. Repeated infestation of C. glareolus resulted in progressive and significant reductions in the percentage of fully engorged ticks, the time of attachment of partially engorged ticks, the scutal index of partially engorged ticks and the moulting success. In contrast, repeatedly infested A. flavicollis did not acquire resistance to larval I. ricinus. Effects of resistance in C. glareolus could be partially disrupted by treatment with the immunosuppressive agent, cyclosporin A (CsA), indicating that T helper cells participate in the immune responses to tick bites. The data suggest that acquired immunity to I. ricinus larvae in C. glareolus is a density-dependent factor regulating natural tick burdens and that it may have an impact on the transmission cycle of B. burgdorferi in Central Europe.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato genospecies in Ixodes ricinus ticks in Europe: a metaanalysis.

In Europe, Borrelia burgdorferi genospecies causing Lyme borreliosis are mainly transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinus. Since its discovery, B. burgdorferi has been the subject of many epidemiological studies to determine its prevalence and the distribution of the different genospecies in ticks. In the current study we systematically reviewed the literature on epidemiological studies of I. ricinus ticks infected with B. burgdorferi sensu lato. A total of 1,186 abstracts in English published from 1984 to 2003 were identified by a PubMed keyword search and from the compiled article references. A multistep filter process was used to select relevant articles; 110 articles from 24 countries contained data on the rates of infection of I. ricinus with Borrelia in Europe (112,579 ticks), and 44 articles from 21 countries included species-specific analyses (3,273 positive ticks). These data were used to evaluate the overall rate of infection of I. ricinus with Borrelia genospecies, regional distributions within Europe, and changes over time, as well as the influence of different detection methods on the infection rate. While the infection rate was significantly higher in adults (18.6%) than in nymphs (10.1%), no effect of detection method, tick gender, or collection period (1986 to 1993 versus 1994 to 2002) was found. The highest rates of infection of I. ricinus were found in countries in central Europe. B. afzelii and B. garinii are the most common Borrelia species, but the distribution of genospecies seems to vary in different regions in Europe. The most frequent coinfection by Borrelia species was found for B. garinii and B. valaisiana.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Transmission cycles of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato involving Ixodes ricinus and/or I. hexagonus ticks and the European hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, in suburban and urban areas in Switzerland.

The European hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus Linnaeus, 1758, is a common host of Ixodes ricinus L. and I. hexagonus Leach, vectors of the Lyme disease spirochaete, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. To investigate whether hedgehogs are reservoirs for B. burgdorferi, hedgehogs were captured in a suburban area suitable for both tick species and in an urban area where I. ricinus is absent. The infection status of the hedgehogs was determined by xenodiagnosis using I. ricinus and I. hexagonus larvae. I. hexagonus and/or I. ricinus were found on all hedgehogs (n = 8) from the suburban area. In contrast, only I. hexagonus was infesting animals (n = 5) from the urban area. A total of 12/13 hedgehogs harboured B. burgdorferi infected ticks. Xenodiagnostic I. ricinus and I. hexagonus larvae that fed on hedgehogs became infected. The results clearly show that European hedgehogs are reservoir hosts of the Lyme disease spirochetes. DNA of B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. garinii and B. afzelii was detected in culture from ear biopsy and needle aspiration material and characterized by using a genospecies-specific PCR assay. One hedgehog presented a mixed infection of the skin with B. burgdorferi sensu stricto and B. garinii. This study also identifies an enzootic transmission cycle in an urban area involving E. europaeus and I. hexagonus. The close association of I. hexagonus with the burrows of its hosts mean that the risks of contact between I. hexagonus and humans may be low.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Seasonal incidence of Ixodes ricinus ticks (Acari:ixodidae) on rodents in western France.

Data collected from a longitudinal survey carried out over 2 years on four farms in western France were used to assess the incidence and infestation of Ixodes ricinus on rodents. Once a month, on each farm, 25 Sherman live traps were set in hedges bordering selected pastures. A total of 799 micromammals were examined, including Apodemus sylvaticus, Clethrionomys glareolus, Microtus agrestis, Microtus arvalis, and Crocidura spp. Larvae and nymphs of I. ricinus were found. Small numbers of Ixodes (Exopalpiger) trianguliceps were also recovered from each farm. The mean infestation rate of the I. ricinus larvae (1.6-5.9) among all animals examined varied between farms Most animals were infested by only a single tick, but one M. agrestis harboured 43 I. ricinus larvae. Larvae or nymphs were found throughout the year, with peaks from March to October.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Gross morphological changes in the salivary glands of Ixodes ricinus (Acari, Ixodidae) between bloodmeals in relation to active uptake of atmospheric water vapour.

The gross morphological changes in the salivary glands of Ixodes ricinus (L.) were investigated at the light microscopic level in various phases off the host with emphasis on the engorged nymph, in order to relate the capability of active vapour uptake in the course of postembryonal development to degeneration and regeneration of salivary-gland alveoli. Agranular alveoli in engorged immatures of I. ricinus, from detachment to the following early pharate phase, do not appear different from those of the unfed instars. This is also true for the female up to approximately the end of oviposition. During moulting, the agranular alveoli of the immatures degenerate and new ones are formed which are apparently already functional in teneral nymphs and adults. In contrast, granular alveoli, much enlarged in freshly detached immature I. ricinus, shrivel in the early post-repletion period and soon reach a highly reduced state which is maintained until apolysis. Subsequently, they disintegrate completely. The finding that engorged and detached immatures of I. ricinus with markedly atrophied granular alveoli are capable of active vapour uptake until some days after initiation of apolysis suggests that only agranular alveoli are responsible for producing the primary secretion involved in vapour uptake.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Allozyme polymorphism of Mdh and alpha-Gpdh in Ixodes ricinus populations: comparison of borreliae-infected and uninfected ticks.

Ixodes ricinus Linnaeus (Acari: Ixodidae) ticks are vectors of numerous infectious diseases in humans and animals. The allozyme variability of MDH and alpha-Gpdh was detected by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in I. ricinus natural populations in three localities in Serbia. Four alleles of Mdh locus (MDH 1, MDH 2, MDH 3 and MDH X) and four alleles of alpha-Gpdh locus (VS, S, F and VF) were detected. Interpopulation differences in Mdh and alpha-Gpdh allele frequencies were statistically insignificant. Significant difference in alpha-Gpdh allele frequencies between males and females was recorded in the largest sample only. Differences in allele frequencies, detected between borreliae-infected and uninfected I. ricinus ticks, were close to the level of statistical significance, especially for alpha-Gpdh locus. Clear significant difference appeared in females when sexes were tested separatelly (P = 0.037). It is interesting that genotypes containing rarer alleles (MDH 1 and S) were infected in higher proportion in comparison to other genotypes. Our results point towards a possible role of Mdh and alpha-Gpdh loci in I. ricinus ticks in the determination of energy requirements for host seeking. Sex differences in alpha-Gpdh allele frequencies suggest that selective pressure, concerning efficiency of reserve materials utilisation, points to alpha-Gpdh rather than to Mdh locus.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Loss of Lyme disease spirochetes from Ixodes ricinus ticks feeding on European blackbirds.

To determine whether blackbirds (Turdus merula), the most abundant and most abundantly tick-infested ecotonal bird of Central Europe, may contribute to the transmission of the Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi), we compared the infectivity to ticks of naturally as well as experimentally infected blackbirds and rodents. European blackbirds experience intense exposure to Ixodes ricinus ticks and to the pathogens that they transmit. In nature, subadult I. ricinus ticks found feeding on these birds generally contain no spirochetes, although infection is universal in those found on black-striped mice (Apodemus agrarius). Those found on yellow-necked mice (A. flavicollis) are less frequently infected. Ticks lose infection in the course of feeding on blackbirds and fail to infect them. Subadult I. ricinus ticks readily feed on blackbirds, black-striped mice, and jirds (Meriones unguiculatus), but engorge less fully on the bird than on the rodents. Although birds may burden human health by establishing new infestations of I. ricinus ticks, our observations indicate that particular birds may benefit health by locally diminishing transmission of the Lyme disease spirochete.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Characterization of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolated in Moscow province--a sympatric region for Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus.

The relationships between Borrelia species and the vector ticks, Ixodes persulcatus and Ixodes ricinus were examined in a molecular epidemiological study. We conducted a survey in the Moscow region which is a sympatric region for both species of tick. We examined 630 unfed I. ricinus and I. persulcatus, ticks collected from four different regions around Moscow within an area of 250 km2. Eighty-four ticks were culture positive (13.3%) and the prevalence rate varied in each region from 5.7% to 42.3%. No difference was found between the total prevalence rate for both species. Eight Borrelia afzelii-like variant isolates from I. ricinus and Clethrionomys glareolus were identified as B. afzelii by flagellin gene and 16S rDNA sequence analyses. Most isolates from I. ricinus were identified as Borrelia garinii type 20047 and B. afzelii. Two isolates were identified as Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) and Borrelia valaisiana, respectively, but no B. garinii type NT29 was found. In contrast, isolates from I. persulcatus were identified as both types 20047 and NT29 of B. garinii, and B. afzelii. No B. burgdorferi s.s. isolate was found among isolates from I. persulcatus.

Animals↗