[Play of sick children and their care--play of hospitalized pre-school children and their introduction to group play].
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Child, Hospitalized↗
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Play fighting in androgen-insensitive tfm rats: evidence that androgen receptors are necessary for the development of adult playful attack and defense.
The frequency of playful attack and the style of playful defense, are modifiable by gonadal steroids and change after puberty in male and female rats. The present study examined the play behavior exhibited by testicular feminized mutation (tfm)-affected males, who are insensitive to androgens but can bind estrogens aromatized from androgens, to determine the relative contributions of androgens and estrogens to the age-related changes in play behavior. tfm males did not exhibit a decrease in playful attack with age and were more likely to maintain the use of complete rotations, a juvenile form of playful defense, into adulthood. tfm males did however, show age related changes in the use of partial rotations and upright postures, two other forms of playful defense, that were similar to normal males. These data suggest that the development of play fighting and defense in males is dependent on both androgen- and estrogen-receptor-mediated effects.
Age Factors↗
When do octopuses play? Effects of repeated testing, object type, age, and food deprivation on object play in Octopus vulgaris.
Studying play behavior in octopuses is an important step toward understanding the phylogenetic origins and function of play as well as the cognitive abilities of invertebrates. Fourteen Octopus vulgaris (7 subadults and 7 adults) were presented 2 Lego objects and 2 different food items on 7 consecutive days under 2 different levels of food deprivation. Nine subjects showed play-like behavior with the Lego objects. There was no significant difference in play-like behavior corresponding to food deprivation, age, and sex of the octopuses. The sequence of behaviors, from exploration to play-like behavior, had a significant influence on the establishment of play-like behavior, as it occurred mostly on Days 3-6 of the 7-day experiment. The pattern of development of play-like activities after a period of exploration and habituation in this study agrees with the hypothesis that object play follows object exploration. A homologous origin of this behavioral trait in vertebrates and invertebrates is highly unlikely, as the last common ancestor might not have had the cognitive capacity to possess this trait.
Animals↗
What's real in children's fantasy play?: fantasy play across the transition to becoming a sibling.
This study examined children's fantasy enactments during the critical life transition of becoming a sibling to determine the degree to which the thematic content of fantasy play reflects children's realistic concerns. Thirty 3-5-year-old children played with their best friend at two pre- and three post-birth intervals. Mothers kept diary records of children's concerns, worries, and events they were excited about during 3-day periods surrounding the five play sessions. Raters then evaluated the degree to which the thematic content of the fantasy play was consistent with their concerns as reported by mothers. Overall, little convergence was apparent between the themes of fantasy play and children's perceived concerns. However, a modest relationship was found between acting out positive concerns in play and sibling relationship quality. Although these results lend limited support for the notion that children's concerns are reflected in the content of their spontaneous play, they do suggest that 'playing it out' is beneficial for children.
Adaptation, Psychological↗
"Normal" childhood sexual play and games: differentiating play from abuse.
Recent recognition of child-to-child and adolescent-to-child sexual abuse raises the question, for the courts, educators, clinicians, and lay individuals, where do we draw the line between normal childhood sexual play, and abuse. This paper presents the results of a survey on normative childhood sexual play and games experiences that was distributed to 300 undergraduates at an all women's college. One hundred-twenty-eight returned the survey, 85% of whom described a childhood sexual game experience. Of these women, 44% described cross-gender play and there was a trend for women who had described cross-gender experiences to have seen the play as involving persuasion, manipulation, or coercion. A strong relationship was found between abuse and cross-gender play. Level of physical involvement in the game was correlated with perceptions of normality. A typology of six kinds of sexual play experiences was derived. Results are discussed in terms of their relation to differentiating childhood sexual abuse from play and gender socialization influences relating to the role rehearsal of coercive or manipulative relationships.
Adolescent↗
Play behavior in rats pretreated with scopolamine: increased play solicitation by the non-injected partner.
Play behavior was assessed in juvenile rat pups following chronic administration of scopolamine (0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg, i.p.) to one partner in each dyad of rats. Scopolamine administration significantly reduced the number of pins and mean pin duration of both playmates in pairs where only one rat was injected with scopolamine (irrespective of dose). However, dorsal contacts were significantly increased in rats exposed to a play partner that had been injected with scopolamine, indicating an increase in play solicitation when the partner was rendered non-responsive with this drug. These effects were stable and consistent over the course of 15 days of repeated testing in the presence of scopolamine. In other words, normal animals did not extinguish play solicitation even after prolonged periods of non-reciprocity. Upon cessation of drug treatment, play behavior returned largely to normal in both animals. Overall locomotor activity levels were significantly reduced in pairs where one rat had been injected with scopolamine. Together, these data suggest that the effects of repeated scopolamine are acute in nature, and that disruption of normal play behavior following chronic scopolamine treatment does not produce long-term impairments in social play behavior beyond acute action of the drug.
Analysis of Variance↗
The therapeutic power of play: examining the play of young children with leukaemia.
BACKGROUND: The therapeutic function of play has been investigated in relation to recognized stressors such as hospitalization, illness and medical treatments for ill children. While medical treatments in the past 30 years have improved survival rates, children's psychological experiences and quality of life during and after their illness have received limited attention. OBJECTIVE: The present study investigated the therapeutic effects of play on 3- to 5-year-old children with leukaemia compared with a control group of healthy children. METHOD: The participants with leukaemia (n = 11) were from the external oncology clinic of an urban children's hospital; control children (n = 11) attended a day care centre. Measures included children's experience of stress, social and cognitive play behaviours, and daily mood. RESULTS: A series of manova revealed that the children with leukaemia, compared with the control children, engaged in (a) significantly fewer total play behaviours, and in particular less (b) parallel, (c) group and (d) dramatic play. Pearson correlations revealed significant relationships between reports of 'being happy' and play only for children with leukaemia. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed a pattern of repetitive play activities week after week for children with leukaemia, but not controls. DISCUSSION: Findings are discussed in light of the theoretical and practical implications for children undergoing treatment for leukaemia.
Analysis of Variance↗
Further reflections on the "watched" play state and the role of "watched play" in analytic work.
This paper expands upon the concept of "watched play," a play state in which the mother silently but attentively watches her child play. The regulatory presence of the "watching mother" is introjected and internalized through the child's development of mental representations of mother's latently interactive presence, contributing to the development of self-regulatory mechanisms. By contrast, the consequences of failed "watched play" are disorganizing play disruptions which foster ambivalence and affect disregulation. The introjection of the "watching mother" during play contributes to the child's growing capacity to mentalize others' behaviors. Finally, "watched play" is consistent with the paradigm of the passive, albeit attentive analyst in both the adult and child analytic modes.
Child↗
Relationships between symbolic play, functional play, verbal and non-verbal ability in young children.
It is well established that certain aspects of play in young children are related to their emerging linguistic skills. The present study examined the relationships between functional play, symbolic play, non-verbal ability, and expressive and receptive language in normally developing children aged between 1 and 6 years using standardized assessment procedures, including a recently developed Test of Pretend Play (ToPP). When effects of chronological age were partialled out, symbolic play remained significantly correlated with both expressive and receptive language, but not with functional play or non-verbal ability; and functional play was only correlated significantly with expressive language. It is concluded that ToPP will provide practitioners with a useful way of assessing symbolic ability in children between the ages of 1 and 6 years, and will contribute to the assessment and diagnosis of a number of communication difficulties, and have implications for intervention.
Child↗
Depression markers in young children's play: a comparison between depressed and nondepressed 3- to 6-year-olds in various play situations.
BACKGROUND AND METHOD: The behaviour of 30 depressed 3- to 6-year-olds was observed in three play situations (solitary free play, interactive free play, and play narratives) and compared to the behaviour of 30 nondepressed clinical and 30 nondepressed nonclinical peers. RESULTS: Depressed children showed significantly less play, particularly less symbolic play, than nondepressed children. Instead, they exhibited more nonplay behaviours, such as exploration and undirected behaviours, than the control children. Moreover, the behaviour of the depressed children was less coherent than that of the nondepressed children, as evident from a greater number of shifts from one type of behaviour to another. CONCLUSIONS: Differences between depressed and nondepressed children were most prominent during the play narratives and were particularly striking when a sad mood was presented.
Affect↗
Play and play areas for hospitalized children.
Play is critical to children's development in social, cognitive, and affective domains. Children actively construct meaning through playful interaction with people and objects. Play materials and environments in turn, affect the level, structure and content of children's play. The following article discusses these issues and the application of contemporary architectural design and current research findings on play environments to the special problems of hospitalized children. Concerns related to separation from family and routine, unfamiliar hospital personnel and procedure, institutionalization, and temporary immobility can be constructively dealt with by thoughtful planning for children's play. Specific suggestions with respect to designing play spaces in hospitals are offered based on current theory and research.
Child↗
Facilitating play in hospitalized handicapped children: the design of a therapeutic play environment.
The development of a play environment is described, including a play structure that was designed to facilitate symbolic play in hospitalized, handicapped children. The effect of the structure on play was tested on handicapped children aged 2 to 13 years who were verbal and able to use at least one hand. Twenty-five pretest and 25 posttest observations were conducted and data were coded into play and nonplay categories. Results indicated decline in aimless wandering and nonplay activities, with a concomitant increase in both partial and symbolic play. The implications for play among hospitalized, handicapped children are discussed.
Child↗
The contribution of motor skills and playfulness to the play performance of preschoolers.
Consideration of a child's motor proficiency, intrinsic motivation, internal locus of control, and freedom to suspend many of the constraints of objective reality were proposed to provide a more comprehensive assessment of play than would an assessment of play performance alone. For empirical validation of this conceptual model of play, 29 subjects (15 nondisabled children and 14 children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis) between the ages of 4 years 6 months and 6 years 6 months were given four assessments: (a) the Preschool Play Scale (Bledsoe & Shepherd, 1982, Knox, 1974); (b) the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks, 1978); (c) the Preschool and Primary Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Nowicki & Duke, 1974); and (d) tests of associative fluency (Wallach & Koogan, 1965; Ward, 1968). Multiple regression procedures revealed that, when considered together, scores on the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, tests of associative fluency, and the Preschool and Primary Internal-External Locus of Control Scale predicted scores on the Preschool Play Scale, thereby supporting the usefulness of the proposed theoretical model. Further, there was no significant difference in the mean scores of the two groups on the Preschool Play Scale. Although this finding may be an artifact of the small sample size, it also may support the authors' belief that children with motor impairments are able to compensate for their limitations by developing areas of relative strength that allow them to play normally. When this belief was further tested with Pearson product-moment correlations and Fisher's Z transformations, it was found that correlations between the test scores of the nondisabled children were not significantly different from those of the children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Clearly, further research is needed.
Arthritis, Juvenile↗
Physiological differences in professional basketball players as a function of playing position and level of play.
AIM: The aim of this investigation is to evaluate the physical and physiological characteristics of different first (ProA) and second division (ProB) professional basketball players, and to relate them to playing position and level of play. METHODS: A total of 58 players were divided into ProA and ProB groups and were assessed for physical characteristics, maximal treadmill test and a 30 s all-out test. The sample included 22 centers, 22 forwards and 14 guards. RESULTS: Centers were significantly taller and heavier (203.9+/-5.3 cm and 103.9+/-12.4 kg) than forwards (195.8+/-4.8 cm and 89.4+/-7.1 kg) and guards (185.7+/-6.9 and 82+/-8.8 kg) and also had higher body fat percentages than the other groups. Forwards were also significantly taller than guards. Centers presented a lower maximal aerobic velocity (kmxh-1) than guards (15.5+/-1.2 vs 16.8+/-1.5, P<0.05) on the maximal treadmill test and a lower maximal velocity (rpm) than forwards (156.5+/-18.4 vs 170.3+/-18.3, P<0.05) on the 30 s all-out test. VO2max (mlxmin-1xkg-1) was significantly lower for ProA (53.7+/-6.7) compared to ProB (56.5+/-7.7) players and the fatigue index on the 30 s all-out test was higher for the ProA group (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: Many physical differences, most notably size, exist between players as a function of their playing position. But these differences have no relationship to the level of play of professional players. General aerobic capacity is fairly homogeneous between playing position and level of play, even if there are observable VO2max differences due to inter-individual profiles. On the other hand, anaerobic capacity seems to be a better predictor of playing level even though it is not clear whether such capacity comes from specific training in ProA, or from an initial selection criteria.
Adult↗
Supporting children on the autism spectrum in peer play at home and school: piloting the integrated play groups model in Taiwan.
The article focuses on integrated play groups (IPGs) as a model to support children with ASD in play with typically developing peers/siblings, and its recent adoption with children in a home and school setting in Taiwan. The first part provides a brief overview of the IPG model and its essential features. The second part reports on a pilot investigation that combined quantitative and qualitative methods to examine the effects of participation in IPGs on the symbolic and social play of two early elementary-aged children with autism. Preliminary findings suggest that each child made notable gains in reciprocal social interaction and symbolic/pretend play while participating in play groups. Implications are discussed in terms of play's role in enhancing socialization, imagination and peer cultural inclusion.
Autistic Disorder↗
The relationship between smile type and play type during parent-infant play.
This study examined the relationship between smile type and play type during parent-infant interactions in the home. Thirty-six mother-infant and father-infant dyads were videotaped playing for 10 min. Smile type (basic, Duchenne, and duplay smiles) and play type (object, physical, vocal, and book reading) were coded. Results of loglinear analysis indicated that different types of smiles occur during different types of play more often than expected if distributed equally. In addition, different smile-type and play-type patterns occurred for father-infant dyads compared with mother-infant dyads. Qualitative analyses were used to generate hypotheses about the reasons why different types of smiles occurred during various play activities.
Adult↗
Beyond play and playfulness.
The evolution of play to playfulness over time establishes developmental foundations that are of central importance throughout life. Freud believed that play is at its richest and most adaptive during the oedipal phase; others have taken issue with Freud's view that play has its place mainly in childhood and is given up in adulthood. This paper emphasizes the central importance of playfulness throughout life. In formulating the boundaries of play, it utilizes the observations and comments of experts in the field.
Adult↗
Play with me at my speed: describing differences in the tempo of parent-infant interactions in the Lausanne Triadic Play paradigm in two cultures.
The goal of the present study was to examine the tempo of triadic play in Swedish and American families through a comparison of 20 families from each culture. When infants were approximately 3 months old, families in both cultures participated in the Lausanne Triadic Play (LTP), a paradigm that facilitates the examination of the triad as a whole and an organization of its parts. All family play sessions were coded separately in Sweden and America using coding systems that had been developed in each country. Dynamics within the triadic play were compared across cultures, and also across coding systems. Results indicated that both coding systems described a distinct difference in the tempo of play between American and Swedish Families. Overall, although there were many similarities between countries, American families were found to have a faster pace in triadic play than Swedish families. This difference in tempo is explored in the data analyses and the discussion of this article.
Adult↗