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PubMed2002

World optometry: the challenges of leadership for the new millennium.

The World Council of Optometry has developed a mission and organizational strategies to improve the delivery of eye and vision care around the world, as well as to advance the profession of optometry. Its growth over the past several years is a tribute to the early pioneers in international optometry who unselfishly volunteered their time and expertise to improving the profession and eye and vision care. It also underscores the continued spirit of global volunteerism that energizes the recent leaders who have sustained this growth. Over the past decades, optometry has seen the steady growth of its educational infrastructure, scope of practice, and professional image. It has faced adversity and seized opportunities. Throughout, the overarching raison d'être has been optometry's responsiveness to the public health needs of society. The future growth of optometry within the global health community will depend on expanding this professional growth at an international level, and forging durable strategic alliances that address the significant prevention of blindness imperatives of our generation.

Developing Countries↗
PubMed1988

A comparison of academic performance of female and male optometry students at the University of Missouri-St. Louis.

The number of women entering optometry has risen steadily over the last 2 decades. The present study compares the academic performance of male and female optometry students in the 1984 through 1986 graduating classes at the University of Missouri-St. Louis School of Optometry. The female students had higher grade point averages upon entering optometry school than their male colleagues although they performed less well than the males on the Optometry College Admissions Test (OCAT) examination. An analysis of optometry grade point averages, class rank and honors received at graduation demonstrated that the women performed at least as well academically as their male counterparts.

Educational Status↗
PubMed1987

Optometry residency in low vision rehabilitation: a cooperative program.

A cooperative Optometry Residency in Low Vision Rehabilitation has been established by the Optometry Sections at Hines Veterans Administration Hospital, Westside Veterans Administration Medical Center and the Illinois College of Optometry. The objective of this program is to train optometrists to function within, develop and direct clinical low vision programs in multidisciplinary settings. This optometry residency is unique in that it provides experience in delivering clinical low vision services in both inpatient and outpatient settings for patients of all ages during all stages of the clinical course of their disease, treatment and rehabilitation. Clinical rotations include the Optometry Section at the Central Blind Rehabilitation Center, the Chicago VICTORS Program, the Low Vision Clinic and affiliated Low Vision Clinics of the Illinois College of Optometry.

Blindness↗
PubMed1995

The United States Air force optometry residency program.

The USAF Optometry Residency Program promotes an educational climate that facilitates the education and development of the resident doctor not only as an optometrist but also as a military officer. Development of self-directed education and decision making within the training period is emphasized. Residents are encouraged to examine and challenge existing ideas and to develop physiological concepts and principles so the practical application of these skills is reflected in active clinical practice and effective professional relationships. The Air Force Optometry Residency Program will train career-oriented Air Force optometrists in advanced clinical and diagnostic techniques, aerospace optometry, and clinic management including the latest continuous quality improvement concepts. Recent changes have enlarged the scope of practice for Air Force optometrists. This expanded scope of practice has created a need for a nucleus of residency-trained optometrists, skilled in the latest techniques of eye care, who return to the field and train their associates in these advanced techniques. Over 40 percent of Air Force optometry clinics are manned by one doctor of optometry. Residency-trained optometrists are able to provide a high level of comprehensive optometric care at these facilities. Through this program the Air Force can keep pace with the evolution of optometry and meet the challenge of providing the highest quality care to our patients.

Aerospace Medicine↗
PubMed1993

VA residency programs in optometry: characteristics of the applicants.

BACKGROUND: Residency programs in optometry have become an important part of the training of doctors of optometry. Although there have been many studies on the subject, there are no known reports which concentrate solely on the characteristics of residency programs' applicants. METHODS: Applicant data obtained from the application and matching services utilized by VA programs for the 1991-92 and 1992-93 residency years was analyzed and, in certain circumstances, compared against appropriate national data. RESULTS: The ratio of applicants to available residency positions exceeded 2:1. The majority of applicants were women. During each residency application year studied, at least one applicant came from each of the accredited schools and colleges of optometry. Stronger scores from the National Board of Examiners in Optometry and higher grade point averages from the optometry curriculum correlated with the matching of an applicant to a residency program. CONCLUSIONS: As the practice of optometry continues to evolve, the profile of many aspects of optometric education, including residency training, will also change over the years. This paper, as baseline information, may serve in future analyses to demonstrate these changes with respect to applicant characteristics.

Female↗
PubMed2004

Comparison of optometry vs digital photography screening for diabetic retinopathy in a single district.

PURPOSE: To compare (a). the clinical effectiveness and (b). cost effectiveness of the two models in screening for diabetic retinopathy. METHODS: (a). Retrospective analysis of referral diagnoses of each screening model in their first respective years of operation and an audit of screen positive patients and a sample of screen negatives referred to the hospital eye service from both screening programmes. (b). Cost effectiveness study. PARTICIPANTS: (1). A total of 1643 patients screened in the community and in digital photography clinics; (2). 109 consecutive patients referred to the Diabetic Eye Clinic through the two existing models of diabetic retinopathy screening; (3). 55 screen negative patients from the optometry model; (4). 68 screen negative patients audited from the digital photography model. RESULTS: The compliance rate was 45% for optometry (O) vs 50% for the digital imaging system (I). Background retinopathy was recorded at screening in 22% (O) vs 17% (I) (P=0.03) and maculopathy in 3.8% (O) vs 1.7% (I) (P=0.02). Hospital referral rates were 3.8% (O) vs 4.2% (I) Sensitivity (75% for optometry, 80% for digital photography) and specificity (98% for optometry and digital photography) were similar in both models. The cost of screening each patient was pound 23.99 (O) vs pound 29.29 (I). The cost effectiveness was pound 832 (O) vs pound 853(I) in the first year. CONCLUSION: The imaging system was not always able to detect early retinopathy and maculopathy; it was equally specific in identifying sight-threatening disease. Cost effectiveness was poor in both models, in their first operational year largely as a result of poor compliance rates in the newly introduced screening programme. Cost effectiveness of the imaging model should further improve with falling costs of imaging systems. Until then, it is essential to continue any existing well-coordinated optometry model.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Forecasting optometry grade point average.

Preoptometry grades. Optometry College Admission Test (OCAT) scores, and a number of other variables were evaluated as predictors of the grade point average earned by optometry students (N = 494) after two years at Southern California College of Optomery. The OCAT Quantitative Ability test was found to be the best single predictor (r = +0.37). This prediction was enhanced (multiple r = +0.55) with the addition of the OCAT Study Reading test score, preoptometry grade point average in college mathematics and science courses, and a rating of the preoptometry college attended. A predicted grade point average for optometry school courses was computed for each student by additively combining these variables, weighted according to their relative predictive validities. By comparing the computed values of students who actually earned a high grade point average in optometry school with those whose average was low, we were able to establish a predicted grade point cutoff score. It is shown that this can be useful in evaluating the potential of an applicant to achieve academic success in optometry school.

Achievement↗
PubMed1984

Personality test measures in optometry school admissions.

Predicting clinical competence among optometry students from data obtainable at the time of admissions is the focus of this study. Preoptometry grades, Optometry College Admission Test (OCAT) scores, and applicant scores on a standardized personality inventory were tested as predictors of faculty ratings of student performance in optometry clinics. Students' clinical performance was best predicted by certain personality dimensions, objectively measured by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI). Preoptometry grades and OCAT scores, although significantly correlated with optometry grades, were generally poor predictors of clinical performance. For men, achievement drive, self-confidence, and tolerance and for women, self-confidence, assertiveness, and interpersonal effectiveness were the personal qualities most highly correlated with instructors' ratings of performance. The study demonstrates that these personal qualities, as well as the degree to which an applicant presents a "good impression," can be objectively assessed at the time of application to optometry school.

College Admission Test↗
PubMed1992

What kinds of leaders are entering optometry schools?

The purpose of this study was to determine the parameters of leadership of students entering one optometry school, assess the relation between personality types and leadership during optometry school, and forecast potential for leadership beyond school. Personality inventories of 269 students entering University of Houston College of Optometry (UHCO) from 1988 through 1990 were analyzed for personality type according to Gough's two-vector system (V1 = extroversion/introversion; V2 = norm-favoring/norm-doubting) which results in four types or life styles: Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta. Although some sex and ethnic differences were found, most (71%) optometry students were Alphas (extroverted/norm-favoring), accepted leaders who strive to maintain and advance consensual values. Alphas achieved well in classroom and clinic and were student leaders. A lesser number (10%), mostly women, were Gammas; extroverted but norm-questioning, Gammas can provide creative and progressive leadership. Remaining types were Betas (15%) and Deltas (4%), both introverted types who avoid leadership positions. In sum, traditional and, to a lesser degree, innovative leadership potential appears strong among optometry students; they should serve the profession well.

Ethnicity↗
PubMed1991

The unification of European optometry: how the profession will change after 1992.

The economic integration of the European Community (EC) targeted for 1992 has the potential to change the course of the development of the optometric profession in Europe. One of the goals of this integration is to create within Europe an environment free of professional barriers, such that European professionals will be able to practice their skill anywhere within the Community. Because optometry is practiced so differently among the 12 EC countries, the development of a system of reciprocity for optometric credentials in Europe will be a difficult task. Currently, there exists a strong movement, headed by the Association of European Schools and Colleges of Optometry (AESCO), to unify the profession by creating a European-wide examination for optometry. The implications of such an examination are tremendous in that it will establish a standard for the delivery of optometric care not only for the 320 million people within the EC, but also world-wide. The purpose of this paper is to examine the current status of optometry in Europe, to review efforts by both the EC and AESCO to unify the profession, and to discuss the impact of recent developments on the future of optometry not only in Europe, but throughout the world.

Certification↗
PubMed1979

The influence of a national health policy on optometry and optometric education in Ontario.

Until recently Canada had little or no direction toward forming a National Health Policy. It was not until 1961 that a government agency served as an impetus in establishing a health care program. With this however, came the challenge for optometry to defend itself against the ophthalmological society in an effort to receive its fair share of recognition. Optometry met this challenge, both in the institutional and practical setting. As a result legislation was passed to establish very positive guidelines for the optometric community including the definition of optometry, peer review, standards of practice, continuing education, and the use of diagnostic drugs. Since then, Canada's Minister of Health issued a statement to elaborate on a number of health related issues. In this 1974 statement he emphasized the value of care should be comparable to that of cure. To meet this need a reemphasis on educational training would have to be met. Optometry has looked toward this policy to plan for its future educational objectives and methods of practice. Because these public policies have been formed in a positive way toward optometry the Canadian optometrist will continue to work toward the goal of being a better practitioner within the scope of this Canadian policy.

Humans↗
PubMed1995

Men and women in optometry. I: Economic issues and professional profiles.

BACKGROUND: Optometry is experiencing a sharp increase in the number of women entering practice. How is this demographic shift likely to affect the profession? This survey was designed to describe current economic and professional profiles of men and women in optometry. METHODS: A survey questionnaire was mailed to a nationwide random sample of optometrists, equal numbers of men and women. RESULTS: Data were analyzed from 353 men and 356 women. Margin of error: +/- 4 percent. On average, women optometrists are younger than men, work 9.4 percent fewer hours, and spend 8.1 percent more time away from their regular professional duties. In 1991 men's optometry income averaged $72,200; women's, $54,400. The income differential persisted after adjusting for age, practice setting, work week, time off, and specialty. Men are more likely to be in solo practice; women in group practice or salaried positions. Similar proportions of men and women are employed in corporate optometry. Few gender differences exist in patient services or other professional activities. CONCLUSIONS: Women optometrists have not yet gained economic equity with men. Male-female similarities in practice patterns suggest that optometry is unlikely to experience major changes in consequence of more women entering the profession.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

The early history of optometry in Maryland.

The progress of optometry in Maryland began with the passage of the first optometry law in 1914. Following its passage by the Maryland Legislature, the Maryland Optometric Association embarked on a plan to develop the profession by sponsoring (1) educational programs, (2) the gradual elimination of store-front practices, (3) the adoption of a code of ethics, and (4) establishing free eye clinics throughout the state. Optometry's steady climb toward professional status also resulted in the introduction of new optical instruments and techniques of refraction. The American Academy of Optometry and the educational courses of the Optometric Extension Program are credited for the impetus to professionalize optometry.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed1994

Behavioral optometry: a historical perspective.

BACKGROUND: The term behavioral optometry is often used to refer to all aspects of practice associated with case analysis and vision therapy. Practitioners with differing backgrounds and perspectives may use the term differently, resulting in poor communication. METHODS: The evolution of behavioral optometry is reviewed from a historical perspective, to identify the various lines along which the field has developed and to clarify the differing perspectives that result. RESULTS: Behavioral optometry had its origins in strabismus orthoptics and in case analysis systems developed to resolve asthenopic complaints in nonstrabismic individuals. From these roots, behavioral optometry has evolved along two complementary lines. Traditional, physiologically-based models emphasize accommodation-convergence relationships and the mechanisms of vergence dysfunction. Behavioral approaches emphasize the influence of environment and experience upon visual function, the relationship of vision to other aspects of organismic behavior, and the role of vision as a modality for gathering and processing information. CONCLUSIONS: The past 50 years has brought substantial growth in the scope of behavioral optometric care, with consideration of the role of vision in relation to school achievement, VDT use, sports, spatial and motor organization, and information-processing. Models of care emphasize prevention, remediation, rehabilitation, and enhancement. Behavioral optometry is an integral component of optometric education and practice.

Behavioral Medicine↗
PubMed2004

The future of optometric practice? The results of a survey of optometrists and optometry students.

BACKGROUND: There is an apparent increase in the number of private optometry practices that are closing due to a lack of interested buyers. We examined some of the factors that influence the market for optometry practices in a survey of practicing optometrists and third- and fourth-year optometry students. METHODS: Optometrists in six states, and students at four schools and colleges of optometry, completed a mailed or faxed survey regarding attitudes toward optometric practice, including fair/reasonable compensation for a new optometrist, the value of optometric practices, and preferred mode of practice on graduation. RESULTS: Doctors and students differed significantly in the amount of money they reported as fair/reasonable compensation for a recently graduated optometrist joining a practice. Comparing students to doctors in specific categories of compensation, students chose a higher fair/reasonable compensation compared to doctors. Students were more likely than doctors to choose >$70,000 as fair/reasonable compensation, while doctors were more likely than students to choose $40,000 to $69,000. Doctors tended to overvalue their practices for the purpose of selling the practice when using percentage of gross income as a valuation method. Students' choices for mode of practice changed dramatically from their ideal when taking their current financial situation into consideration. Students were more likely to choose corporate practice as their preferred practice mode when considering their current financial situation than when not restricted. CONCLUSIONS: There are many factors that affect the value and marketability of an optometric practice. In order to sell a practice, the owner must consider the effects of the needs and desires of recently graduated optometrists.

Humans↗
PubMed1983

An analysis of the papers presented at the annual meetings of the American Academy of Optometry for the last twelve years.

The papers read at the annual meetings of the American Academy of Optometry by representatives from the schools of optometry for the last 12 years were analyzed. We tabulated the papers presented in the Sections and in the General Program. Topics were subdivided into binocular vision, ocular health, contact lenses, optics and refraction, etc. Some schools maintained a consistent level over the years whereas others varied in the number of papers read at the Academy meetings. The emphasis of some schools of optometry on certain fields of optometry became apparent.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed1985

Predicting optometry school grades from intellectual and nonintellectual admission variables.

Intellectual achievement, assessed over time by grades in preprofessional courses and standardized by scores on the Optometry College Admission Test (OCAT), is typically used to judge an applicant's potential for academic achievement in optometry school. In this study both intellectual and nonintellectual admission variables were tested as predictors of optometry grade point average (GPA). GPA at the end of two years was strongly and efficiently predicted by the following combination of intellectual and nonintellectual variables: preoptometry GPA, scores on the physics section of the OCAT, and a score based on the applicant's California Psychological Inventory (CPI) profile. The multiple correlation coefficient between this three-variable combination and GPA was 0.66; cross-validated r = 0.56. Scores on the quantitative section of the OCAT were the best single predictor of first year grades; when preoptometry GPA scores on the physics section of the OCAT and the personality inventory score were added, a predictive validity coefficient of 0.61 was obtained. It is concluded that the prediction of grades in optometry school, and indeed all professional schools, will derive from these three factors: preprofessional grades, standardized achievement test scores, and a quantitative measure of personal traits which relate to academic achievement. Whereas the exact weighting of each variable in a predictive equation depends upon the individual school, maximum predictive validity will be based on these three factors.

College Admission Test↗
PubMed2005

Optometry and WebCT: a student survey of the value of web-based learning environments in optometric education.

PURPOSE: Improvements in information and communication technology and the need for off-campus delivery have led to the increased use of web-based learning tools in optometry schools around the world. This study compared student-reported preferences for traditional lecture-based learning with their preferences when using a web-based learning tool. METHODS: One hundred and thirteen second and third year students from the School of Optometry and Vision Science at the University of New South Wales were surveyed. All students had worked with WebCT for at least two years. Students were asked to rank a range of learning tools in perceived usefulness and also to state how often they used the particular learning tools. RESULTS: The students rated notes (lecture or WebCT delivered) and clinical laboratory sessions as their most useful learning tools. The use of specific learning tools was more diverse, with students reporting that they often used notes (lecture or WebCT delivered), the WebCT calendar tool and the WebCT discussion tool. This result highlights the valuable contribution of the communication aspect of WebCT to fostering learning communities. The least used learning tools were textbooks, websites mentioned in lectures and library print resources. Interestingly, the purchase of textbooks was high with 77 per cent of students on average reporting they had bought the recommended textbooks. CONCLUSION: Notes were the preferred learning tool of the optometry students at UNSW, suggesting that passive learning of content was the preferred learning style. It is hoped that the introduction of web-based learning environments may allow students and staff to reflect on their preferred teaching and learning styles. Web-based learning tools, such as WebCT, provide a powerful method to facilitate independent deeper learning in students with active learning styles. The current encouragement of student-based active learning methods should see increased use of independent learning platforms, such as WebCT, in optometry schools.

Computer-Assisted Instruction↗