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PubMed1985

[Music perception, EEG and musical training].

Changes of EEG during listening to music were studied in two groups of probands, one of them with several years of training on a musical instrument. The EEG was recorded simultaneously from 19 electrodes (10:20 system) against connected ear lobe electrodes. One minute recording periods at rest before and after music were compared with a period of one minute recording during listening to music. 30 seconds of each of these recordings were studied by Fourier analysis. Averaged power and coherence spectra (between transversally adjacent electrodes and between electrodes on homologous regions of both hemispheres) were computed. Broad band parameters were chosen for 5 frequency bands between 4 and 32 Hz. Significant changes of the parameters were represented topographically. During listening to music, a significant reversible decrease of the parameters studied was found: in the musically trained group on both sides, but preponderantly on the right hemisphere, in the non-trained group almost exclusively on the left hemisphere. Moreover, in the trained group, the changes occurred more frequently and involved larger regions of the skull than in the untrained group. In addition, the first group had most changes in the frequency range between 18 and 24 Hz, the second group between 13 and 18 Hz. Finally, comparisons of the changes between the control period before music and music and those between the control period after music and listening to music led to additional conclusions on different strategies of the processing of musical information in musically trained and untrained persons.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Keep music live: music and the alleviation of apathy in dementia subjects.

BACKGROUND: A recent Cochrane report concluded that more and better quality research is required to investigate the effectiveness of music therapy in reducing problems in behavioral, social, emotional and cognitive domains in patients with dementia. This randomized placebo-controlled trial with blinded observer rater aimed to explore whether music, live or pre-recorded, is effective in the treatment of apathy in subjects with moderate to severe dementia. METHODS: Thirty-two subjects meeting ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for moderate to severe dementia and fulfilling diagnostic criteria for apathy were exposed to live interactive music, passive pre-recorded music or silence for 30 minutes. Each subject was randomized to 30-minute music or silent periods and was video recorded and the muted recording analyzed every 3 minutes using dementia care mapping to assess the quality of engagement to the blinded music intervention. RESULTS: Compared to low baseline levels of positive engagement (12.5%) in the silent placebo period, the majority of subjects (69%), regardless of dementia severity, showed a significant and positive engagement to live music. Engagement to pre-recorded music was non-significant, with just 25% of all subjects showing positive engagement. No subjects showed any evidence of experiencing a state of ill-being during either the live or pre-recorded music sessions. CONCLUSIONS: During the intervention, live interactive music has immediate and positive engagement effects in dementia subjects with apathy, regardless of the severity of their dementia. Pre-recorded music is non-harmful but less clearly beneficial.

Aged↗
PubMed2004

Implications of technology in music therapy practice and research for music therapy education: a review of literature.

This article reviews the use of technology in music therapy practice and research for the purpose of providing music therapy educators and clinicians with specific and accurate accounts of the types and benefits of technology being used in various settings. Additionally, this knowledge will help universities comply with National Association of Schools of Music requirements and help to standardize the education and training of music therapists in this rapidly changing area. Information was gathered through a literature review of music therapy and related professional journals and a wide variety of books and personal communications. More data were gathered in a survey requesting information on current use of technology in education and practice. This solicitation was sent to all American Music Therapy Association approved universities and clinical training directors. Technology applications in music therapy are organized according to the following categories: (a) adapted musical instruments, (b) recording technology, (c) electric/electronic musical instruments, (d) computer applications, (e) medical technology, (f) assistive technology for the disabled, and (g) technology-based music/sound healing practices. The literature reviewed covers 177 books and articles from a span of almost 40 years. Recommendations are made for incorporating technology into music therapy course work and for review and revision of AMTA competencies. The need for an all-encompassing clinical survey of the use of technology in current music therapy practice is also identified.

Evidence-Based Medicine↗
PubMed2003

Children processing music: electric brain responses reveal musical competence and gender differences.

Numerous studies investigated physiological correlates of the processing of musical information in adults. How these correlates develop during childhood is poorly understood. In the present study, we measured event-related electric brain potentials elicited in 5- and 9-year-old children while they listened to (major-minor tonal) music. Stimuli were chord sequences, infrequently containing harmonically inappropriate chords. Our results demonstrate that the degree of (in)appropriateness of the chords modified the brain responses in both groups according to music-theoretical principles. This suggests that already 5-year-old children process music according to a well-established cognitive representation of the major-minor tonal system and according to music-syntactic regularities. Moreover, we show that, in contrast to adults, an early negative brain response was left predominant in boys, whereas it was bilateral in girls, indicating a gender difference in children processing music, and revealing that children process music with a hemispheric weighting different from that of adults. Because children process, in contrast to adults, music in the same hemispheres as they process language, results indicate that children process music and language more similarly than adults. This finding might support the notion of a common origin of music and language in the human brain, and concurs with findings that demonstrate the importance of musical features of speech for the acquisition of language.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2003

More about the musical expertise of musically untrained listeners.

Several behavioral experiments that were designed to compare the abilities of musicians and nonmusicians to process subtle changes in musical structures are surveyed. These experiments deal with different aspects of music perception including the processing of melodic and harmonic structures, the processing of large-scale structures, and implicit learning. In all these experiments, the so-called nonmusician listeners behaved in a very similar way as did highly trained students from music conservatories and music departments. This outcome suggests that when the experimental setting requires participants to process musical structures (in contrast to musical tones), the large audience of untrained listeners exhibits sophisticated musical abilities that are similar to those of musical experts. It has been suggested that musically untrained listeners are "experienced listeners" who use the same principles as musical experts in organizing their hearing of music.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1989

[The "euphoria" effect of music videos--a study of the reception of music with visual images].

An attempt is made to study the impact of visual information on the perception of music by employing (rock) music videos as stimuli. Forty music videos were presented to judges, who either saw the video or only heard the respective pieces of music. They had to judge the emotions conveyed via the piece of music/video on scales and their overall impression on semantic differential scales. Results indicate that visual information as presented in music videos has considerable effects on impressions: When pieces of music are presented as music videos, more positive emotions are attributed, while presentation of the pieces of music alone resulted in more negative emotion attributions. Thus, music videos seem to "euphorize" the recipient. Furthermore, video presentation compared to presentation of music alone evoked more intense "complexity/interest" as well as "activity" judgments, while "evaluation" judgments were not influenced by the medium of presentation. In addition, a number of presentation factors (like the speed of the music or the number of cuts in the videos) do influence impressions. This leads to the conclusion that researchers should pay more attention to such microcharacteristics of stimuli. In general, the effects found to be due to the medium of presentation are independent of the effects on judgments due to content (i.e., presentation factors).

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Musical and Verbal Interventions in Music Therapy: A Qualitative Study.

In clinical work, our main task as music therapists is to make interventions: we give our clients guidance, encouragement, and support; we offer interpretations; we play with and for them. Most of the interventions are either musical or verbal. As a music therapy clinician, supervisor, and educator, I wanted to explore the following questions: (a) How do music therapists define musical and verbal interventions? (b) When does a music therapist intervene musically and when does the therapist intervene verbally? (c) When and why do music therapists suggest to their clients exploring an issue musically or verbally? (d) Do musical and verbal interventions serve the same purpose or different purposes? (d) How is the decision about the type of intervention made? and, (e) is there a difference between the power and meaning of musical interventions versus verbal interventions for both the therapist and the client?

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Personality and music preferences: the influence of personality traits on preferences regarding musical elements.

The purpose of this scientific study was to determine how personality traits, as classified by Cattell, influence preferences regarding musical elements. The subject group consisted of 145 students, male and female, chosen at random from different Polish universities. For the purpose of determining their personality traits the participants completed the 16PF Questionnaire (Cattell, Saunders, & Stice, 1957; Russel & Karol, 1993), in its Polish adaptation by Choynowski (Nowakowska, 1970). The participants' musical preferences were determined by their completing a Questionnaire of Musical Preferences (specifically created for the purposes of this research), in which respondents indicated their favorite piece of music. Next, on the basis of the Questionnaire of Musical Preferences, a list of the works of music chosen by the participants was compiled. All pieces were collected on CDs and analyzed to separate out their basic musical elements. The statistical analysis shows that some personality traits: Liveliness (Factor F), Social Boldness (Factor H), Vigilance (Factor L), Openness to Change (Factor Q1), Extraversion (a general factor) have an influence on preferences regarding musical elements. Important in the subjects' musical preferences were found to be those musical elements having stimulative value and the ability to regulate the need for stimulation. These are: tempo, rhythm in relation to metrical basis, number of melodic themes, sound voluminosity, and meter.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Influence of music on heart rate variability and comfort--a consideration through comparison of music and noise.

By considering three kinds of music and noise, this research investigates the influence of music on the living body by comparing the difference of influence on heart rate variability and comfort when subjects listen to music and are exposed to noise. We used two pieces of classical music, rock music, and noise recorded by a tape recorder. The following conclusions were made from the findings of the research: 1) Hearing classical music results in a small variance of Mayer Wave related Sinus Arrhythmia (MWSA) component and Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) component compared with a body being at rest. This is because the sympathetic nerve is suppressed by the sound of classical music. With rock music and noise, however, the MWSA component increases and the RSA component decreases. 2) From a psychological evaluation, we found that classical music tends to cause comfort and rock music and noise tend to cause discomfort. 3) A correlation was found between the balance of the MWSA component and the RSA component and the psychological evaluation. As the comfort increases, the variance of MWSA decreases; as discomfort increases, the variance of MWSA increases.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

[Music as adjuvant therapy for coronary heart disease. Therapeutic music lowers anxiety, stress and beta-endorphin concentrations in patients from a coronary sport group].

BACKGROUND: In a study with coronary patients it was estimated that music is able to lower stress and fear and contributing to relaxation in spite of physical exercise. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 15 patients (13 male, two female, mean age 62,2 +/- 7,6 years) of a coronary sport unit were listening to an especially composed relaxation music while training their common heart-frequency adapted exercises. Before the exercises and after listening to music blood pressures were measured and blood was collected for determination of beta-endorphin. Simultaneous to blood collection the participants had to perform two psychometric test: the perceived stress experience questionnaire (PSQ) of Levenstein to measure the graduation of subjective perceived stress and the state-anxiety inquiry (STAI) of Spielberger as an indicator of coping. To practice the trial ("test trial"), the whole protocol was performed one week prior to the mean trial, but without listening to music and without blood collections and blood pressure measurements. RESULTS: In the test trial without music there were no significant changes in PSQ-data. In the mean trial, under the influence of music, values in the section "worries" decreased as a sign of lower worries (26.6 versus 27.6; p = 0.039). STAI-values were significantly lower as a sign of reduced fear after listening to music (31 versus 34; p = 0.045). beta-endorphin concentration (10.91 microg/l versus 15.96 microg/l, p = 0.044) and systolic blood pressure (130 mmHg versus 140 mmHg; p = 0.007) decreased significantly after listening to music. CONCLUSIONS: Regarding worries and fear, patients seemed to benefit by the intervention of music. beta-endorphin was lowered significantly after music despite physical activity.

Anxiety↗
PubMed1999

Development and initial validation of an instrument to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport: the Brunel Music Rating Inventory.

Equivocal results of the psychophysical effects of music have been explained in part by the insensitivity of researchers to important personal and situational variables when selecting music. The aim of the present study was to operationalize a conceptual framework for the prediction of psychophysical responses to music into a music rating inventory to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport environments. An initial item pool was developed and administered to 334 aerobics instructors. Exploratory factor analysis produced a 13-item, four-factor structure (association, musicality, cultural impact and rhythm response), which accounted for 59.2% of the variance. This model demonstrated acceptable fit indices when tested using confirmatory factor analysis on 314 exercise-to-music participants, and was better than an alternative two-factor model. When cross-validated using multisample confirmatory factor analysis, the model also showed an acceptable fit overall, although some invariance in the rhythm response factor was evident that can be attributed to the exclusive use of synchronous music by aerobics instructors. The Brunel Music Rating Inventory appears to be a valid and reliable tool for both researchers and practitioners to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport environments.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Investigating the relationship of music and language in children: influences of musical training and language impairment.

Language and music are human universals involving perceptually discrete elements organized in hierarchically structured sequences. The set of principles governing the combination of these structural elements into sequences is known as syntax. A violation of expectancies concerning syntactic regularities may be reflected by two ERP components: the ERAN (early right anterior negativity) and the ELAN (early left anterior negativity). The ERAN is evoked by a violation of musical regularities, whereas the ELAN is linked to syntax processing in the language domain. There is evidence from adult data to suggest that both ERAN and ELAN are, at least partly, generated in the same brain regions. Therefore, it seems plausible to expect transfer effects between music and language due to shared processing resources. Moreover, the ERAN is larger in adults with formal musical training (musicians) than in those without, indicating that more specific representations of musical regularities lead to heightened musical expectancies. The aim of this study is to investigate these issues in child development. We conducted two experimental sessions with the same participants and compared children with and without musical training (11 years old) and children with or without language impairment (5 years old). In a music experiment, the reactions to chord sequences ending either with a (regular) tonic or with an (irregular) supertonic were compared. For a language experiment we used syntactically correct and incorrect sentences. Preliminary results show that an ERAN is present in both groups and appears to have a larger amplitude in musically trained children. In addition, there are indications of an enhanced negativity in response to a syntactic violation in the musically trained children. The relationship between the ERP components is, moreover, manifested in the finding that an ERAN is present in linguistically nonimpaired children at the age of 5 years but not in children with language impairment of the same age.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1988

[Recent trends in the psychology of music perception: the perceptual processes of melody and musical pitch].

In this article some of the recent researches on music perception are reviewed, with a special emphasis upon those that concern melody organization and musical pitch. Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1983) pointed out that there is a grammatical parallel between music and language, and presented some grammatical rules for the tonal music. Serafine (1983) cautioned us not to confuse the "style principles" with the "musical cognitive process". The recent experiments on musical pitch and melody has reinforced the psychological validity of musical segmentation, tonality, pitch chroma, scale, and key. Theoretical approaches to the relations in the scale systems gave the possibility of a "new scale system" for use in psychological experiments, while the recent pitch models has made it possible for us to control tonality and to generate tones never used before in playing music. The need for a greater cross-stylistic generality of psychological concepts in music and the farther clarification of the "musical cognitive process" through experiments utilizing the "new scale system" and the "new tones" are indicated.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1999

Music Educators' Perceptions Regarding the Inclusion of Students with Severe Disabilities in Music Classrooms.

The purpose of the present study was to: (a) examine music educators' perceptions regarding the practice of full inclusion, (b) conduct a descriptive analysis of their perceptions, and (c) compare and contrast choral, instrumental, and general music educators' perceptions regarding the practice of inclusion. The data collection technique used in the study was personal interviewing. Participants were instrumental, choral, and general music educators (N = 35) in a midwestern school district that supports the practice of full inclusion. Written transcripts of the 35 interviews were coded and analyzed for recurring themes and patterns using content analysis. Music educators identified 13 critical issues related to the inclusion of students with disabilities. The need for collaboration or consultation with special educators, music therapists, or others knowledgeable about students with disabilities was identified as a critical issue by nearly all of the participants. Many participants also identified as critical issues: the need for more information about the students included in their music classroom, the amount of time required to successfully include students with disabilities, and the range of abilities often found in the inclusive classroom. Most music educators felt that inclusion has had a positive impact on students both with and without disabilities, though reservations were also expressed by some of the music educators. Subject responses were also analyzed for frequency of: disabilities mentioned, positive and negative statements made regarding inclusion, personal anecdotes, and references to music therapy. Suggestions are given for the role music therapists can play in facilitating the inclusion of students with disabilities.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Are we "experienced listeners"? A review of the musical capacities that do not depend on formal musical training.

The present paper reviews a set of studies designed to investigate different aspects of the capacity for processing Western music. This includes perceiving the relationships between a theme and its variations, perceiving musical tensions and relaxations, generating musical expectancies, integrating local structures in large-scale structures, learning new compositional systems and responding to music in an emotional (affective) way. The main focus of these studies was to evaluate the influence of intensive musical training on these capacities. The overall set of data highlights that some musical capacities are acquired through exposure to music without the help of explicit training. These capacities reach such a degree of sophistication that they enable untrained listeners to respond to music as "musically experienced listeners" do.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1999

The benefits of group music at the 1996 music weekend for women with cancer.

BACKGROUND: Music therapy has been proven to benefit cancer patients physically and emotionally. The Music Weekend for Women with Cancer was developed as a novel opportunity for participants to experience the healing powers of music amidst others who had a shared understanding of their illness. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fourteen female mixed cancer patients, three spouses, and one daughter attended the weekend from Friday evening through Sunday afternoon. Workshops and events centered on the use of music as a vehicle for expression of emotions, reflection, relaxation, communication, and enjoyment. Questionnaires were collected before the weekend to describe our population as well as three months after the weekend to assess any changes in their utilization of music and mood state. RESULTS: Although insufficiency of post-weekend data limited the potential for assessing the effects of the weekend on the participants' utilization of music and mood state, the extremely positive evaluations supported the role music can play in helping patients and families explore their reactions to cancer. CONCLUSIONS: Events such as this answer the call in the literature for more opportunities to use music and the arts in cancer education. The authors hope this weekend will serve as a prototype for future events that aim to offer the benefits of music.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed1980

Music and language: musical alexia and agraphia.

Two aphasic right-handed professional musicians with left hemispheric lesions had disturbed musical function, especially musical alexia and agraphia. In Case 1 aphasia was of transcortical sensory type, with severe agraphia and decreased comprehension of written words, although she could match them with pictures. Except for reading and writing, musical ability was normal; she could sing in five languages. Musical alexia and agraphia affected pitch symbols more than rhythm. Case 2 had conduction aphasia and severe expressive amusia, especially for rhythm. Although his language alexia and agraphia were milder than Case 1's, his musical alexia and agraphia were more severe, affecting rhythm as much as pitch. In neither patient were those aspects of musical notation either closest to verbal language or most dependent upon temporal (sequential) processing maximally impaired. These cases are consistent with the literature in suggesting that the presence or absence of aphasia or of right or left hemispheric damage fails to predict the presence, type, or severity of amusia, including musical alexia and agraphia. The popular notion that receptive amusia follows lesions of the language-dominant temporal lobe, whereas expressive amusia follows non-dominant frontal lobe damage, is an over-simplification, as is the view that increasing musical sophistication causes a shift of musical processing from the right hemisphere to the left.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

The effect of therapeutic music interventions on the behavior of hospitalized children in isolation: developing a contextual support model of music therapy.

The purpose of this study was to provide preliminary data that support or negate a contextual support model of music therapy. The contextual support model of music therapy, based on Skinner and Wellborn's (1994) motivational theory of coping, argues that therapeutic music environments possess elements of structure, autonomy support, and involvement that lead children to become more actively engaged with their environment. This study examined three basic suppositions of the theory: (a) that music interventions create supportive environments, (b) that music interventions increase children's active engagement, and (c) that relationships exist between supportive environments and engaging behavior. Ten pediatric oncology patients restricted to an isolated environment participated in the study. Participants, serving as their own controls, experienced four different environmental conditions. Each condition was videotaped to facilitate collection of environmental and behavioral data. Statistical analyses of these data revealed: (a) that the music environment possessed a significantly higher frequency of environmental support elements than other activities typically experienced by hospitalized children, (b) that therapeutic music interventions elicited significantly more engaging behaviors from hospitalized children than other hospital activities, (c) that positive behavioral effects of music interventions were not maintained in hospital experiences that followed the music session, and (d) that environmental support elements were related to some positive behaviors but these behaviors were not consistent across environments.

Case-Control Studies↗